Academic writing

How to Write a Research Proposal Paper

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Thu, 05 Sep 2024 21:41:03 +0000

How to Write a Research Proposal Paper ana.lacerda@ma… Thu, 09/05/2024 - 17:41

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Literature reviews, Proposals, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Learn what a research proposal paper is. 
Understand the importance of writing a research proposal paper.
Understand the steps in the planning stages of a research proposal paper. 
Identify the components of a research proposal paper.

What is a Research Proposal Paper?

A research proposal paper:  

includes sufficient information about a research study that you propose to conduct for your thesis (e.g., in an MT, MA, or Ph.D. program) or that you imagine conducting (e.g., in an MEd program). It should help your readers understand the scope, validity, and significance of your proposed study.
may be a stand-alone paper or one part of a larger research project, depending on the nature of your assignment.
typically follows the citation format of your field, which at OISE is APA.

Your instructor will provide you with assignment details that can help you determine how much information to include in your research proposal, so you should carefully check your course outline and assignment instructions. 

Why Write a Research Proposal Paper?

Writing a research proposal allows you to

develop skills in designing a comprehensive research study;
learn how to identify a research problem that can contribute to advancing knowledge in your field of interest;
further develop skills in finding foundational and relevant literature related to your topic;
critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem;
see yourself as an active participant in conducting research in your field of study.

Writing a research proposal paper can help clarify questions you may have before designing your research study. It is helpful to get feedback on your research proposal and edit your work to be able to see what you may need to change in your proposal. The more diverse opinions you receive on your proposal, the better prepared you will be to design a comprehensive research study.

How to Plan your Research Proposal

Before starting your research proposal, you should clarify your ideas and make a plan. Ask yourself these questions and take notes:

What do I want to study?
Why is the topic important? Why is it important to me?
How is the topic significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
What problems will it help solve?
How does it build on research already conducted on the topic?
What exactly should I plan to do to conduct a study on the topic?

It may be helpful to write down your answers to these questions and use them to tell a story about your chosen topic to your classmates or instructor. As you tell your story, write down comments or questions from your listeners. This will help you refine your proposal and research questions.

Research Proposal (student's preliminary notes) (91.11 KB, PDF)

This is an example of how to start planning and thinking about your research proposal assignment. You will find a student’s notes and ideas about their research proposal topic - "Perspectives on Textual Production, Student Collaboration, and Social Networking Sites”.

Structure of a Research Proposal Paper

A research proposal paper typically includes:

Introduction

Start your introduction by giving the reader an overview of your study. Include:

the research context (in what educational settings do you plan to conduct this study?)
the research problem, purpose (What do you want to achieve by conducting this study?)
a brief overview of the literature on your topic and the gap your study hopes to fill
research questions and sub-questions
a brief mention of your research method (How do you plan to collect and analyze your data?)
your personal interest in the topic.

Conclude your introduction by giving your reader a roadmap of your proposal.

To learn more about paper introductions, check How to write Introductions.

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework refers to the theories that you will use to interpret both your own data and the literature that has come before. Think about theories as lenses that help you look at your data from different perspectives, beyond just your own personal perspective. Think about the theories that you have come across in your courses or readings that could apply to your research topic. When writing the theoretical framework, include

A description of where the theories come from (original thinkers), their key components, and how they have developed over time.
How you plan to use the theories in your study / how they apply to your topic.

Literature Review

The literature review section should help you identify topics or issues that will help contextualize what the research has/hasn’t found and discussed on the topic so far and convince your reader that your proposed study is important. This is where you can go into more detail on the gap that your study hopes to fill. Ultimately, a good literature review helps your reader learn more about the topic that you have chosen to study and what still needs to be researched

To learn more about literature reviews check What is a Literature Review.

Research Methodology

The methods section should briefly explain how you plan to conduct your study and why you have chosen a particular method. You may also include

your overall study design (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) and the proposed stages
your proposed research instruments (e.g. surveys, interviews)
your proposed participant recruitment channels / document selection criteria
a description of your proposed study participants (age, gender, etc.).
how you plan to analyze the data.

You should cite relevant literature on research methods to support your choices.

Implications and Conclusion

The conclusion section should include a short summary about the implications and significance of your proposed study by explaining how the possible findings may change the ways educators and/or stakeholders address the issues identified in your introduction.

Depending on the assignment instructions, the conclusion can also highlight next steps and a timeline for the research process.

To learn more about paper conclusions, check How to write Conclusions.

References

List all references you used and format them according to APA style. Make sure that everything in your reference list is cited in the paper, and every citation in your paper is in your reference list.

To learn more about writing citations and references, check Citations & APA.

Research Proposal Examples

Quantitative Research Proposal (Instructor's Guidelines) (222.05 KB, PDF)

These are detailed guidelines on how to prepare a quantitative research proposal. Adapted from the course APD2293 “Interpretation of Educational Research”.

Research Proposal (Student Sample) (110.27 KB, PDF)

This is a research proposal paper written by an OISE student on the relationships between textual production, student collaboration and social networking sites. Hover over the highlighted parts to find annotations and comments about the structure and content of this research proposal.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

Revising, Editing & Proofreading

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 14 Aug 2024 20:35:35 +0000

Revising, Editing & Proofreading ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 08/14/2024 - 16:35

Skills Categories:

Academic writing

Skills Keywords:

Editing, Grammar, Vocabulary, Writing process

This Resource Page Will Help You:

Understand the differences between revising, editing, and proofreading.
Apply these different techniques to your writing process.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare an academic paper or literature review and indicating you are currently in step 4, part 2, revising, editing and proofreading.

Introduction

After drafting your paper, you need to review it carefully. The review process is divided into three steps: revise, edit and proofread. Contrary to what many people assume, these are not synonyms – they involve different goals, procedures, and outcomes – but each one is integral to a quality written product.

Step 1: Revising

What is Revising?

Revising involves focusing on the content and organization of the overall text and considering sections, passages, or paragraphs that need to be changed, added, or removed.

Think about whether your writing

contributes to the overall purpose of the paper
flows logically and smoothly from one section to another
contains all the important information
avoids unnecessary information.

How to Revise your Paper: Reverse outlining

This is helpful after you’ve written a rough draft and especially when you want to check the logical flow of ideas within a section or paragraph.

Re-read each section of your paper and create an outline of the key points and evidence therein.
Analyze the structure and flow of the paragraphs within a section
If needed, re-organize the paragraph into a more logical order, or recognize points that need to be added or removed.

Reverse outline (example) (48.14 KB, PDF)

This example with annotations shows how a student revised a paper section by identifying the key points to make sure they flow logically.

Tip: Take a break/ask a friend

After completing a rough draft, take some time away from your paper so that you can revise it with a fresh set of eyes or more objectively. You can also ask a friend or classmate to read it over, asking them to pay attention to the clarity of ideas.

Step 2: Editing

What is Editing?

Editing involves focusing on clarity and accuracy of language at the sentence level.

Editing considerations include

Sentence structure
Clarity
Concision
Vocabulary usage
Grammatical accuracy
Tone and formality
Consider the audience (e.g., understanding the differences in writing for a generalist or specialist reader)

How to Edit your Paper

1. Sentence Structure

Using a variety of different sentence structures is most effective in creating a dynamic and readable text. As you edit, make sure that you aren’t using the same structure repeatedly.

One of the most common issues to look out for is the balance between passive and active voice. The passive voice is fine when used selectively but can make a text overly wordy, repetitive, and unclear when overused.

Examples below are taken from: https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/formandstyle/writing/scholarlyvoice/activepassive

Example: Overuse of Passive Voice (Unclear ‘doer’ of the actions)

A survey was administered. Using a convenience sample, 68 teachers were invited to participate in the survey by emailing them an invitation. Email addresses of teachers who fit the requirements for participation were provided by the principal of the school. The teachers were emailed an information sheet and a consent form. Responses were collected from 45 teachers…

Example: Overuse of Active Voice (‘I’ is quite repetitive)

In this study, I administered a survey. I created a convenience sample of 68 teachers. I invited them to participate in the survey by emailing them an invitation. I obtained email addresses from the principal of the school…

Example: Balance between Active and Passive

In this study, I administered a survey using a convenience sample. Sixty-eight teachers were invited to participate in the survey. The principal of the school provided me with the email addresses of teachers who fit the requirements for participation. I emailed the teachers an information sheet and a consent form. A total of 45 teachers responded…

2. Clarity

There are numerous considerations when focusing on clarity, such as providing ample explanations of your points (rather than assuming the reader will understand) or using technical terminology appropriately (see point 7 below).

Here is an example of how to use language effectively for clarity by avoiding unclear pronoun references.

Unclear Example

The income gap between rich and poor has continued to widen over the past decade, contrary to mainstream economists’ predictions. This indicates that new models are required to understand this.

Clear Example

The income gap between rich and poor has continued to widen over the past decade, contrary to mainstream economists’ predictions. This disparity between theory and reality indicates that new models are required to understand this trend.

3. Concision

In the field of Education, the audience for our scholarly works consists of other researchers but also practitioners like school administrators and teachers, sometimes even parents. As such, it is important to use concise and direct language rather than long and complex explanations. Concision makes your writing easier to read and thus more accessible to a wider audience.

Below are eight strategies you can follow to make your text more concise.

Eliminate unnecessary words

Career growth was an important factor in why participants chose to enroll in continuing education. -> Participants enrolled in continuing education for career purposes.

Avoid repetition

TOO REPETITIVE: In my opinion, I think that...
CORRECT: In my opinion...

Cut long introductions

TOO LONG: This point is further supported by the fact that…
CORRECT: Furthermore
TOO LONG: For all intents and purposes, this project will…
CORRECT: This project will

Delete “filler” words

UNNECESSARY FILLER: This reveals that the approach is clearly qualitative…
CORRECT: This reveals that the approach is qualitative…

Construct active sentences

PASSIVE: The error message was written by robots.
ACTIVE AND CONCISE: Robots wrote the error message.

Substitute phrases with a word

A majority of… -> most
Due to the fact that… -> because
At all times… -> always
At the present time… -> currently

Replace “wordy” sentence structures such as relative clauses with adjectives, noun phrases, etc.

Educators face issues that are very serious -> educators face serious issues
A course that focuses on language methodologies -> a course on language methodologies OR a language methodologies course

Replace sentence structures “it is + adjective + that...” or “it + verb + that...” with one verb

It is important that teachers attend professional development courses -> teachers should/must attend professional development courses
It seems that students prefer constructive feedback -> students seem to prefer constructive feedback

Editing for Concision (example) (84.5 KB, PDF)

This example shows how to use concision strategies in a paragraph.

4. Vocabulary usage

There are many vocabulary issues to pay attention to. Examples include

countable/uncountable nouns (Research vs. Studies)
preposition combinations (Research in a field vs. Research on a topic)
function of transition words (Although vs. However)

Here is an example combining all three issues:

Incorrect Example

Although, researches on the field of education argue that students’ social and emotional well-being is as important as their cognitive development.

Correct Example

However, research in the field of education argues that students’ social and emotional well-being is as important as their cognitive development.

5. Grammatical accuracy

Common grammatical errors to be aware of include subject-verb agreement, article usage, and appropriate verb tense among others. Let’s use the same example above to demonstrate:

Incorrect Example

However, research in field of education argue that students’ social and emotional well-being is as important as their cognitive development.

Correct Example

However, research in the field of education argues that students’ social and emotional well-being is as important as their cognitive development.

6. Tone and formality

For different assignments or text types, your academic tone and formality will change. For instance,

traditional research paper: more formal with a “standard” academic style and language
reflective writing: less formal with a more narrative style.

One of the most common strategies to use for a formal academic style is avoiding phrasal verbs and upgrade them to more formal sounding academic verbs.

Example with Phrasal Verbs (not very formal)

Given our fast-paced society, academics must routinely put creative solutions to unexpected problems into practice.

Example with Academic-style Verbs (more formal)

Given our fast-paced society, academics must routinely implement creative solutions to unexpected problems.

7. Consider the audience

With a generalist audience, you need to communicate your thoughts more simply and directly. You can do this by defining key terms and/or avoiding too much jargon (technical terminology).

However, a lot of the writing we do in grad school is for a specialist audience who already know a lot about your topic. In this case, you need to avoid the definitions and explanations provided for generalists because specialists will already be aware of them. When editing your paper, for example, think about how much knowledge your professor (the reader) has about your topic and adjust your language accordingly.

In the following examples, the same sentence is written using specific vocabulary (appropriate for a specialist audience) and explanations of concepts (more appropriate for a generalist audience).

Text for a specialist audience

In the field of language teaching and learning, scholars in the plurilingualism and translanguaging traditions have been working to break down a monolingual approach that has been widely accepted for more than a century.

Text for a generalist audience

In the field of language teaching and learning, scholars who promote theories about using all of one’s languages for language learning have been working to break down a monolingual approach that believes in the strict separation of languages and has been widely accepted for more than a century.

Note: In the generalist example, you can use technical terminology as long as you explain what they mean (e.g., “monolingual”)

Step 3: Proofreading

What is Proofreading?

This process involves looking for smaller technical errors on the levels of spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.

Depending on the formatting style of your discipline or department (APA at OISE), proofreading also means making sure that you have correct citations, font style and size, references list, etc.

How to Proofread your Paper

1. Find a sample APA paper

There are many minor formatting considerations to take into account with APA and very little room for creativity. In addition to the list above, there are also specific requirements for your cover page, headings, and paragraph spacing. The best way to apply and learn all these specifications is to access a sample APA paper online and then format your paper accordingly.

Make sure it is the correct edition (APA 7th Edition at the time of writing), as the American Psychological Association changes its formatting requirements every few years.

For more information about APA, check our Resource Page on Citations and APA Style.

2. Upgrade your punctuation

Beyond the period/full stop, many students struggle with comma, semi-colon, and colon usage. Take some time to learn the different ways of using the above punctuation, which will contribute to more varied sentence structures and more advanced writing overall. Also, become acquainted with major sentence structure errors so that you can avoid them.

Below are some common punctuation issues with examples.

Incomplete sentences

WRONG: Protests against immorality which became very strong by 1928.

Feedback: The use of ‘which’ means that another clause is needed after ‘1928’.

CORRECT: Protests against immorality became very strong by 1928,
CORRECT: Protests against immorality, which became very strong by 1928, divided the nation.

Run-on sentences & Comma splices

A run-on sentence combines two (or more) complete clauses without punctuation or linking words. This type of sentence is wrong and needs to be broken up.

Example: The results were tabulated they were statistically significant.

A comma splice combines two (or more) complete clauses with a comma. This type of sentence is wrong and needs to be broken up.

Example: The results were tabulated, they were statistically significant.

The sentences above need one of the following:

a “stronger” punctuation mark to break the two clauses (e.g., period/full stop, or semi-colon)
a conjunction (e.g., and) between ‘tabulated’ and ‘they’ to break up the two complete clauses

Correct Examples: The results were tabulated. They were statistically significant. (period / full stop)
The results were tabulated; they were statistically significant. (semi-colon)
The results were tabulated, and they were statistically significant. (conjunction)

Learn more about

Example Paper

Editing, revising and proofreading a paper (student sample) (91.3 KB, PDF)

This example with annotations shows how a student revised, edited and proofread the introduction paragraph of a paper on language policies in Beijing.

Our Tips

Keep the three steps separate. It can be difficult to focus on a paper’s global elements (Revising) and local elements (Editing, Proofreading) at the same time. Review your paper multiple times focusing on these elements separately.
Use technology for editing. AI applications or Grammarly are becoming increasingly effective in pointing out editing issues such as awkward wording, overly long or confusing sentences, or grammatical accuracy.
Use technology for proofreading. Use the spell/punctuation checkers on Microsoft Word or Google Docs. Basic errors on these levels can leave a bad impression on professors during the marking process.

Use vocabulary resources. On freecollocation.com you can search for collocations (i.e., high frequency word pairings), such as preposition combinations and noun-adjective combinations.
Think before you submit. Before submitting, re-read your paper one last time, zoom out, and reflect on your revising, editing, and proofreading processes. Is there anything you missed? Is there anything that could be improved?
Ask for help. Visit the OISE Student Success Center (OSSC) and book an appointment with an advisor to get help at any of the above stages. OSSC advisors don’t proofread your papers, but give you feedback on portions of it that you can apply to the rest of your written work.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Draft an Academic Paper

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 16 Jul 2024 16:02:34 +0000

How to Draft an Academic Paper ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 07/16/2024 - 12:02

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, English language

Skills Keywords:

Grammar, Literature reviews, Samples of written work, Vocabulary, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Learn the steps in drafting an academic paper or standalone literature review.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or academic paper and indicating you are now in step 4, part 1, writing the draft.

Introduction

Note: the instructions on this page focus on the following types of academic papers: research papers and standalone literature reviews.

Drafting an academic paper involves three main steps:

Understanding the general structure of the text genre (e.g., research paper, literature review, etc.)
Creating an outline
Drafting/writing the paper

We will look at each of these stages in detail.

Step 1: Understand the Structure of Academic Papers

Research Papers

These papers typically focus on the results of original research. This is their structure:

Introduction

Here you give the background information on your topic, include a problem statement, briefly contextualize your topic in the literature, and outline your objective/thesis statement/research questions.

To learn more, check How to Write Introductions.

Literature Review

This is sometimes included in the Introduction for academic journal articles. Here you review the relevant literature on the topic before eventually identifying a gap that your study aims to fill.

To learn more, check What is a Literature Review? and How to Prepare a Literature Review.

Methods

Here you give details on your research design, participants, data collection procedures, data analysis techniques, etc. (i.e. how you conducted your research).

Findings/Results

This is where you share the findings of your research, often organized into themes. In more quantitative papers, you will find tables and charts in this section, while qualitative studies will have a lot of participants’ quotes in this section.

Discussion

In this section, you generally zoom out to discuss the meaning of the findings altogether, their connections to the previous literature, and the ultimate answers to your research questions. This section will take on a more narrative style than the numbers and charts found in the quantitative Results section and more analysis of participants' perspectives in qualitative texts.

Conclusion

Finally, you summarize the key points and then discuss larger implications in the Conclusion. This is where writers often include the study’s limitations, areas for future research, and recommendations for practice.

To learn more, check How to Write Conclusions.

Standalone Literature Reviews

These papers are based on secondary sources. The entire paper is a literature review and the data is the literature itself. This is their structure:

Introduction

Much like in Academic Papers, give the reader an overview of the topic and the rationale or objective of the Literature Review, ending with the research questions. If you need to give more background information than there is room for in the Intro, you can create separate background sections to follow the Intro.

To learn more, check How to Write Introductions.

Methods

Because the entire paper is a Literature Review, we don’t need a separate Literature Review section here. Thus, jump straight to the Methods, including information on the retrieval of relevant studies (databases, key words), inclusion and exclusion criteria (limits on date of publication, topic, text type, etc.), and then briefly introduce the studies that you did include and the categories that you will use to organize them in your Literature Review.

Findings/Results

This section looks like the Literature Review section of the Academic Paper, except here the literature IS your data. You can, again, organize this section by theme and outline the focus, methods, and results of each study before comparing, contrasting, integrating, and critiquing them.

Discussion

Zoom out and look at your ‘findings’ all together. How have they answered your research questions? What are the similarities that you found in the literature? Any unresolved debates? Any remaining gaps and areas for future research? You will continue to do comparison, contrast, synthesis and critique here, but now across all your themes instead of one-by-one.

Conclusion

Quickly highlight the key takeaways from your Literature Review before focusing on larger implications, recommendations, predictions, etc. You can also discuss the limitations of your own Literature Review here (as opposed to the limitations of the literature in general, which fits into the Discussion above).

To learn more, check How to Write Conclusions.

To learn more about Literature Reviews, check What is a Literature Review? and How to Prepare a Literature Review.

Other Types of Academic Papers

Here are some Resource Pages of other text types that you will probably find in your courses at OISE, so take a look for their specific organizational patterns:

Step 2: Create an Outline

Always start with an outline before drafting your paper – it will make your drafting and revising phases much easier.

Beyond just creating an outline for the main sections of your paper (described in the section above), try to develop a more detailed outline that shows different sub-headings, points, and supporting arguments within each section.

Consult your outline continually during the writing process and check it again at the completion of a rough draft to make sure you included all relevant and important points. At the same time, keep in mind that your outline will evolve during the writing process as you read more, come up with new ideas, and drop old ones, so some flexibility with your outline is also advised.

Here is an example of a detailed outline of a research paper.

Step 3: Draft / Write

In the drafting/writing process, the order that you write in depends on you.

Some people like to start at the beginning (Intro) and then write in the same order as the outline until the Conclusion. Others prefer starting with the main findings and then writing out from there, jumping around to write different sections and sometimes even ending with the Introduction once all the details are filled in. Try experimenting with different approaches to see which writing sequence works best for you.

The following Resource Pages give some guidance on the writing process, starting with the most basic level of the paragraph:

Next, these Resource Pages can help you draft different sections of your paper, from Introductions to Literature Reviews to Conclusions.

When zooming in on specific sections or paragraphs of your paper, these Resource Pages describe more mechanical aspects such as communicating directly to your readers, using transitions, attending to flow, and bringing out your own voice in the writing:

Beyond your own voice, these last Resource Pages give instruction on how to integrate other articles and texts into your writing as well as how to use APA style:

Example of a Standalone Literature Review

Literature Review (student sample) (366.38 KB, PDF)

This is a full literature review paper written by an OISE student on the topic of Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) and Written Corrective Feedback (WCF) in Writing Centers (WC). Throughout the paper, you will find several annotations. Yellow annotations refer to the structure of the paper, its content and how ideas are developed. Purple annotations refer to writing elements and language elements (e.g., paragraphs, paraphrases, summaries, quotes, stance and voice, cohesion, etc.).

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

On Campus Services

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 02 Jul 2024 20:41:03 +0000

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 07/02/2024 - 16:41

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand what critical thinking is and why it is important for your academic studies
Learn how to apply critical thinking in academic reading, discussions and writing.

Introduction

Critical thinking is an essential skill for academic success and professional growth, particularly in graduate school where advanced analytical abilities are required. This Resource Page introduces what critical thinking is, explains the importance of critical thinking for graduate students, and offers practical guidelines to enhance this skill. By mastering critical thinking, you can navigate complex academic challenges and contribute meaningfully to your fields of study.

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating our and others’ thinking with a view to improving it. Critical thinking means:

Stepping back from immediate personal feelings
Understanding why other people see something differently
Checking the accuracy of information
Checking the logic of an argument

Looking for possible flaws, assumptions, and biases in an argument
Checking statistics and other empirical data for accuracy and validity
Examining data from different angles
Reaching informed conclusions

Many students find ‘being critical’ difficult because of:

Respect for the authority of ‘experts’
For instance, you might accept a renowned professor's theory on educational methods without question, believing the professor's expertise makes their perspective infallible. Even if you have valid doubts or conflicting evidence, your respect for the professor's authority may prevent you from critically analyzing or challenging their theory.
Lack of confidence in your own judgement
For instance, you might avoid critiquing a well-established research paper in a seminar because you doubt your own analytical skills compared to your more experienced peers. Even though you have identified potential flaws or alternative interpretations, your lack of confidence in your judgment prevents you from speaking up, missing a chance to contribute to the academic discussion.
Personal biases
For instance, if you are researching the effects of technology in education, you might focus only on studies that support your belief that technology improves learning, ignoring research that highlights potential drawbacks. This personal bias prevents you from critically evaluating all the evidence, leading to a skewed (i.e., not accurate or exact) understanding of the topic and potentially flawed conclusions.
Intellectual difficulty (i.e., it's too hard)

Why is Critical Thinking Important for your Academic Studies?

You must develop critical thinking skills to

understand topics and concepts more deeply, digging below the surface
engage in critical conversations about topics
apply learned theories and develop arguments to support your claims.

You often need to apply critical thinking skills in various course activities, such as:

Seminars (e.g., in-class discussions)
Presentations
Writing (e.g., online posts, critical reflective writing, positioning paper writing, proposal writing, research papers, etc.)
Other projects and assignments (e.g., curriculum or lesson design)

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Reading?

Here are common strategies that can help you apply critical thinking when reading:

Focus on the instructor’s prompts (if provided)
Make a list of questions to guide your reading and ask questions as you read
Make connections to what you already know or have read
Think how the ideas apply to you, your field, or existing issues

Don’t take information at face value (i.e., don’t “accept” or agree with the information you’re reading simply because it was written by a scholar or because your instructor asked you to read it)
Take a stance while you read (i.e., don’t just stop at understanding the information, but form an opinion or idea about what you’re reading)
Take notes of observations and references to other readings or concepts

Here is a list of guiding questions that you should ask yourself when reading:

Interpret

What does this mean?
What is the best way to categorize or classify this information?
Is it the main argument of the author(s), the evidence used by the author(s) to support their claims?
Is it one of the research findings, or the implications of the author(s)?
In this context, what was intended?
Why might this be a problem or challenge?

Analyze

What claim or conclusion did the author(s) make?
What are the reasons or arguments behind this claim?
What are the pros and cons of this?
What are the differences and similarities between x and y?
What are the differences and similarities in research findings between this article and others?
What are the differences and similarities in research design between this study and others?
What are the differences and similarities in proposal 1 and proposal 2 raised in this article?
What are possible alternatives to the solutions proposed?

Evaluate

How credible is this claim?
How strong are these arguments or evidence?
Do I have all the necessary facts?
What is my position on this statement?

Connect

How does this relate to what I know, other claims, or other practices?
How is this relevant to me, this field, research, or practice?

Infer & Apply

Based on what I know so far, what conclusions can I draw?
What are the implications of this claim, evidence, or finding?
What are possible solutions to this issue?

To learn more about critical reading and see some examples, check our Resource Page on How to Read Academic Articles.

How to apply Critical Thinking in Discussions?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Collaborative Work?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Writing?

Critical thinking is paramount to academic writing, as it enables you and other scholars to construct well-reasoned, coherent, and compelling arguments.

Critical writing involves not just presenting information, but also evaluating, analyzing, and synthesizing different sources to offer a balanced and insightful perspective. It requires questioning assumptions, identifying biases, and considering alternative viewpoints to strengthen the credibility and depth of the analysis. By applying critical thinking in academic writing, you can produce rigorous and original work that advances knowledge and fosters scholarly dialogue.

You are writing critically when you...

Make connections and comparisons among studies

Example:

Much of the research on written corrective feedback (WCF) has revolved around investigations into the effectiveness of focused WCF, with mounting evidence providing support for this type of feedback in producing accuracy gains (Van Beuningen, 2010). For example, Bitchener and Knock’s (2009) 10-month study into the effects of focused WCF on a targeted linguistic category using direct and metalinguistic feedback found a positive effect on grammatical accuracy that endured over time. Some research studies have examined the effectiveness of unfocused WCF or compared focused to unfocused WCF. In their study investigating the differential effects of focused versus unfocused WCF, Sheen, Wright, and Moldawa (2009) were able to show that while both types of error correction produced significant improvements in accuracy of articles, because the CMC AND WCF 5 unfocused WCF did not outperform the control group, the researchers were unable to demonstrate the benefits of providing unfocused over focused corrective feedback. Other studies have explored direct WCF compared with indirect WCF, although these results are somewhat inconclusive. Some researchers claim an advantage to direct WCF, particularly with regards to continued long-term effects on the acquisition of simple linguistic forms (Van Beuningen, de Jong & Kuiken, 2008; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009) while other researchers (Frear & Chiu, 2015) point to improvements in accuracy as a result of indirect WCF. Ferris (2010) suggests both direct and indirect feedback can deliver complementary results since both have the potential to induce L2 writers to become aware of and notice a mismatch between their own written production and target-like norms.

Feedback: The passage makes connections and comparisons among studies on written corrective feedback (WCF). It highlights that focused WCF has been shown to improve accuracy over time, as evidenced by Bitchener and Knock’s (2009) study. It contrasts these findings with research on unfocused WCF, such as the study by Sheen, Wright, and Moldawa (2009). Additionally, it compares direct and indirect WCF, noting that some studies (e.g., Van Beuningen et al., 2008; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009) support the effectiveness of direct WCF for simple linguistic forms, while others (e.g., Frear & Chiu, 2015) highlight the benefits of indirect WCF. Ferris (2010) further suggests that both types of feedback can complement each other.

Integrate your reflections and experiences

Example:

Both Strange & Hardy-Cox (2016) and Sabri (2011) demonstrated how “the student experience” has transformed into a broad categorical term that has translated into a policy framework that homogenizes and erases the experiences of marginalized students. Due to this transformation, I understand the concept of “student experience” has become inadequate for orientating and navigating the student experience when used without third-wave theories of student development (Strange & Hardy-Cox, 2016). This is emphasized by the shift in how students have become viewed as consumers and as a result, shifted how institutions approach student consultations (Sabri, 2011). While this shift in understanding has assisted institutions in addressing the diverse needs of students, the homogenization of our understanding of “student experience” remains an issue. For example, UK higher education institutions and their preference to use the experiences of privileged students within the quality assurance process – this raises the question of whose voices are valued and understood when we speak about student experiences (Strange & Cox, 2016; Sabri, 2011).
When thinking of my experiences as a student union leader, advocacy was a key component of my role. To achieve this, ensuring intersectionality and the centering of marginalized communities was utilized in various areas of decision-making. While this may have created tensions with certain groups, the benefits of using an intersectional framework were clear – as most, if not all, campaigns that aim to improve the student experience from the perspective of access and equity aim to address the barriers that prevent marginalized students from navigating the higher education landscape to what we understand as the traditional university student (i.e., white, cis, male, able-bodied).

Feedback: The student reflects on the concept of "student experience" as presented in the literature by contrasting it with their own experiences as a student. Their reflection then presents an anecdotal evidence supporting the authors' arguments for a need to acknowledge how different the experience of marginalized students' is in higher education.

Identify limitations in the literature & point out potential directions for future research

Example:

Critique example: Patel's (2022) study on using AI for personalized language learning highlights the technology's potential to tailor educational content to individual needs. However, it overlooks the critical socio-emotional components of learning, focusing solely on algorithmic customization without considering the motivational benefits of human interaction. This gap points to a need for future research to explore how AI can not only adapt to learners' cognitive profiles but also enhance emotional and social engagement. For example, scholars (e.g., James, 2023) have been experimenting with AI-empowered platforms to promote community and peer interaction as a potential solution to support both intellectual and emotional learning in ESL classrooms.

Feedback: In this example the author indicates the limitations of Patel’s study – which only focused on one element of AI for education – and then suggests directions for future research in the field.

Share potential solutions to an issue

Example:

We, the authors, recommend that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation, development, and implementation constantly reflect on how teacher candidates are constructing their understanding of teaching and theory–practice relationships. Enabling teacher candidates to establish a sound foundation to start their teaching careers is one of the broad goals of teacher preparation. More research is needed to understand the context of teacher preparation and how programs and individual faculty can offer appropriate, coherent learning experiences that shift away from the traditional divide between theory and practice. While a considerable body of literature about theory and practice in teacher education exists, theory–practice dynamics continue to be a challenge in terms of how teacher educators can best support teacher candidates as they develop their own understanding of theory–practice relationships in the context of learning to teach. This case study research adds to the knowledge base of teacher education, providing insight into the nature of faculty and teacher candidates’ thinking about theory– practice relationships and how this may shape practice. It also provides insight into some of the tensions and challenges faculties of education may experience as they implement new programs and/or practices that explicitly attend to creating strong theory–practice relationships.

From: Goodnough, K., Falkenberg, T., & MacDonald, R. (2016). Examining the nature of theory–practice relationships in initial teacher education: A Canadian case study. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 39(1), 1-28.

Feedback: The passage recommends that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation should continually reflect on how teacher candidates understand teaching and the relationship between theory and practice. It suggests that programs and faculty should provide coherent learning experiences that bridge the traditional divide between theory and practice. Additionally, it highlights the need for more research to offer insights into effective teacher education practices and the challenges faced by faculties in implementing new programs that strengthen theory–practice relationships.

Descriptive vs Critical Writing

Check the table below for the differences between descriptive and critical writing:

Descriptive writing	Critical writing
States what happened	Identifies the significance of what happened
States what something is like	Evaluates the strengths and weakness of something
Gives the story so far	Analyses how the story so far impacts on the current state of the focused issue or stakeholders involved
Says how to do something	Analyses why things are done a certain way
Explains what a theory says	Shows why a theory is relevant. Identifies the strengths and weaknesses of a theory in practice.
Explains how something works	Indicates why something will work
Notes the method used	Identifies whether a method was suitable or appropriate
Says when something occurred	Identifies why the timing is of importance
Identifies the different components of something	Weighs the importance of component parts
States options	Gives reasons for selecting each option
Lists details	Evaluates the relative significance of details
Lists in any order	Structures information in a specific order (e.g., importance, time, themes etc.)
States links between items	Shows the relevance of links between pieces of information
Gives evidence	Argues a case according to the evidence
Provides information for comparison	Makes a reasoned judgement and comparison on provided information
Gives information	Draws conclusions

Example of descriptive writing

Example:

Brown (2020) examines how mobile apps facilitate language learning, showing significant improvement in vocabulary acquisition among learners. Garcia et al. (2021) explore the role of virtual reality (VR) environments in enhancing language comprehension and cultural immersion. Zhang (2019) analyzes the effectiveness of online forums in encouraging language practice and interaction outside the classroom. Meanwhile, Patel (2022) discusses the use of artificial intelligence in personalizing language learning experiences, adjusting to individual learner's strengths and weaknesses.

Feedback: The example above is merely a summary of different research studies, without presenting any clear connection or comparison among studies, or the author’s stance.

Example of critical writing

Example:

The integration of technology into language education, as explored by recent research, offers a multifaceted view on enhancing learning outcomes. Brown (2020) highlights the role of mobile apps in vocabulary acquisition, suggesting technology's effectiveness in providing accessible learning tools. This notion of accessibility is complemented by Garcia et al. (2021), who delve into virtual reality (VR) environments, illustrating technology's capacity not only for language comprehension but for immersive cultural experiences as well, thereby broadening the scope of language learning beyond traditional methods. Zhang (2019) extends this discussion to online forums, which fostered community and interaction among learners, emphasizing the social aspect of language acquisition. On the other hand, Patel (2022) introduces a personalized approach through artificial intelligence, indicating a shift towards adaptive learning technologies that cater to individual needs. Collectively, these studies underscore a trend towards interactive and personalized learning experiences in language education, facilitated by technological advancements.

Feedback: In this example the author made connections among studies and supported their own claims with evidence from the existing literature.

Tips:

Both description AND criticality are needed in academic writing. You need to find a balance to present and analyze data.
Be curious, skeptical, and as objective as you can!

To learn more about how to write critically, check How to Integrate Others’ Research into your Writing and What are Stance & Voice and How to Apply them in Academic Writing.

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Additional Resources

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How to Write Conclusions

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Mon, 01 Jul 2024 14:35:21 +0000

How to Write Conclusions ana.lacerda@ma… Mon, 07/01/2024 - 10:35

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, English language

Skills Keywords:

Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Learn the steps in writing an effective Conclusion for a research paper.

Introduction

Often overlooked in the research paper writing process, the Conclusion is important in that it reminds the reader of the key points in the body of the text, communicates important takeaways, and zooms out to discuss the larger implications of the paper’s findings or arguments.

This resource page will cover three key steps or moves that comprise an effective Conclusion:

Summarize key points & main takeaways while connecting back to the thesis and/or research questions.
Make connections to the literature and/or theory presented earlier in the paper.
Zoom out: Discuss limitations, implications, and/or give recommendations.

Step 1: Summarize key points & main takeaways

Start your conclusion by reminding the reader about the key points from the body of your paper. Consider this question: What do you want your reader to remember? Also know that readers sometimes skip down to the Conclusion to get the gist of the paper before reading body paragraphs, so make sure to communicate your most important points here. Also, make sure that this summary aligns with your thesis and/or research questions outlined in the Introduction (i.e. what the main findings or answers to your RQs are).

In the following Conclusion example, the writers highlight three key points or takeaways from their study on theory-practice relationships in teacher education. In the final point, the implications of ‘the embedded practicum model’ are described in terms of the training of teacher candidates.

Example

In the teacher preparation program described in this study, many program components and practices contributed to enabling teacher candidates to develop insights into the complex relationship between theory and practice. Theory and practice were viewed by faculty as existing in an integrated, reciprocal relationship, with many program structures and practices organized around school-based experiences. Faculty adopted a variety of student-centered, active pedagogical approaches (course- and program-based) that explicitly enabled teacher candidates to make theory and practice connections. A key feature of the program that fostered theory–practice connections was the embedded practicum model, which allowed for a gradual enculturation into the teaching profession. This prepared teacher candidates to gradually participate in the life of teaching, starting with low-risk activities in safe learning environments (e.g., viewing case studies of classroom practice, peer teaching) and gradually progressing to more complete complex teaching responsibilities (planning and implementing assessment with children) over time.

Step 2: Make connections to the literature and/or theory presented earlier in the paper

In the next move, return to some of the key literature that you discussed earlier to evaluate how your findings/conclusions compare or add to this body of literature. You can also return to the key theories you used in your paper, evaluating how your findings/conclusions can be interpreted through those theoretical lenses.

In the next section of the example text, the reader is reminded of three key theories that were presented previously. The authors signal their alignment with the second and third theories before discussing the implications for teacher educators in moving away from the first theory (traditional approach).

Example

Earlier in this article, we theorized about three approaches to teacher preparation: traditional, Deweyan, and practical wisdom. Other scholars, such as Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009), have also suggested that teacher preparation be premised on the ideas of the latter two approaches. These authors suggest that teacher education be organized around core principles of practice, skills, and teacher identity to best prepare teacher candidates for the teaching profession. They state that traditional divides between foundation and methods courses and divides between schools and universities need to be dismantled. This implies a particular role for teacher educators if teacher candidates are to examine discrete aspects of the complex act of teaching. It would require faculty to envision course content differently, and to view program and pedagogy from the starting point of clinical practice.

In the next example, the researchers return to the literature by showing the alignment between the findings in their article and the emerging literature surveyed before. Once again, implications for teacher candidates and teacher education programs are then described.

Example

As mentioned at the beginning of this article, emerging literature does suggest a number of principles for offering high-quality teacher education programs (Allen, 2009; Beck & Kosnik, 2006; Darling-Hammond, 2006). These principles and their associated practices were evident in the design and implementation of the program described in this article. The principles underpinning a teacher preparation program have implications for the scope and sequencing of content and experiences, as well as program structure and pedagogy, and will influence how teacher candidates experience and understand theory– practice relationships.

Step 3: Zoom out: Discuss limitations, implications, and/or give recommendations

In the final step, it is time to zoom out and give your final take-home message. Here, we reverse the “general to specific” pattern in the Introduction, ending with more general points around the implications and recommendations for the field based on your key findings and conclusions. You can also discuss the limitations that were uncovered during the paper writing process, such as gaps that still exist, and then suggest areas for future research.

In the final example, the writers begin with recommendations, discuss areas for future research, outline a key existing challenge, before ending with a description of the significance of the study and how it adds both to our knowledge while also uncovering some tensions for teacher education on the level of theory-practice relationships.

Example

We, the authors, recommend that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation, development, and implementation constantly reflect on how teacher candidates are constructing their understanding of teaching and theory–practice relationships. Enabling teacher candidates to establish a sound foundation to start their teaching careers is one of the broad goals of teacher preparation. More research is needed to understand the context of teacher preparation and how programs and individual faculty can offer appropriate, coherent learning experiences that shift away from the traditional divide between theory and practice. While a considerable body of literature about theory and practice in teacher education exists, theory–practice dynamics continue to be a challenge in terms of how teacher educators can best support teacher candidates as they develop their own understanding of theory–practice relationships in the context of learning to teach. This case study research adds to the knowledge base of teacher education, providing insight into the nature of faculty and teacher candidates’ thinking about theory– practice relationships and how this may shape practice. It also provides insight into some of the tensions and challenges faculties of education may experience as they implement new programs and/or practices that explicitly attend to creating strong theory–practice relationships.

Example of a Conclusion

Literature Review (student sample) (366.38 KB, PDF)

Our Tips

Often, students will focus on Step 1 (Summarizing of key points) in their Conclusion and then stop there. Don’t forget to include Steps 2 (Making connections) and 3 (Zooming out) for an effective Conclusion.
Note that writers do not always follow the Step 1 -> Step 2 -> Step 3 sequence in perfect order. These steps may be mixed up and returned to numerous times in a Conclusion.
A sign of an ineffective Conclusion is when it only comprises a few sentences. For your research papers, aim for the Conclusion to take up half a page at minimum.
Before writing the Conclusion, look back at your Introduction to make sure that the promises you made to the reader there (focus, thesis, significance, etc.) are still relevant to your paper. If not, you can adjust the Introduction to reflect what was actually accomplished in your paper.

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Video: How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

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How to Write Introductions

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 19:40:43 +0000

How to Write Introductions ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 06/19/2024 - 15:40

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, English language

Skills Keywords:

Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Learn the steps in writing an effective Introduction for a research paper.

Introduction

The Introduction of your research paper is important as it should grab the reader’s attention, provide needed background information and context for the paper’s focus, and outline your main arguments and/or research questions.

This resource page will cover five key steps or moves that comprise an effective Introduction:

Introduce the general topic and grab the reader’s attention.
Describe the situation/background information.
Identify a problem and why it is important to solve.
Look at what other researchers have found/done.
Outline the focus, purpose, and main argument/research questions.

Step 1: Introduce the General Topic and Grab the Reader’s Attention

Start the paper off by announcing your topic with a catchy ‘hook’ to grab the reader’s attention. The hook can be a vivid quote, a thought-provoking question, an interesting anecdote or scenario, a surprising fact or statistic, a bold statement, etc.

In the example below, the authors provide some historical context to indicate the importance of their topic, as it has been in scholarly discussion for many years.

Example

Research about theory–practice relationships in teacher preparation has been prevalent since the early 1970s.

Step 2: Describe the Situation/Background Information

In the following sentences, explain the background and context to your topic, moving from general to more specific information. This is also a place where you can define or clarify key terms, provide further statistics, and give details that lead into the problem statement in Step 3.

In the example below, the writers provide background information by specifying exactly what they mean by ‘theory’ and ‘practice,’ introducing key considerations in the design or review of teacher education programs, and then announcing their focal context (K-12).

Example

Often, this “real” or “perceived” relationship has been characterized as a “gap” or “divide” between learning in university classrooms (theory) and classroom teaching (practice). In designing or renewing teacher preparation programs, issues such as the nature of theory and practice, how they relate to each other, and how theory–practice relationships are envisioned and enacted as teacher candidates learn to teach must be considered carefully. It is also important to consider teacher educator perspectives about the relationship between theory and practice and how these perspectives are reflected in their thinking and professional practice. K–12 classrooms are becoming increasingly complex (e.g., catering to needs of all children in the regular classroom, staying abreast of emerging technology, etc.), and warrant pedagogy that reflects inclusivity, standards-based curricula, and technology.

From: Goodnough et al., 2016.

Step 3: Identify a Problem and Why it is Important to Solve

Very often (but not always), an essay or research paper will include a problem statement, as we often write about current issues in the field and education before offering recommendations. Beyond just introducing the issue, however, we also need to describe its significance (i.e., address the “so what?”).

In the following excerpt, the researchers first explain the importance of integrating theory-practice for K-12 education and then introduce the problem with traditional approaches to theory-practice relationships in teacher education.

Example

The changing nature of the K–12 learning environment has implications for how teacher education programs are structured, as well as influence the pedagogy adopted that enables teacher candidates to integrate and connect theory and practice in ways that support their learning and development. Traditional approaches to teacher preparation often conceptualize the relationship between theory and practice as “a two-step process of knowledge acquisition and application or transfer” (Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996, p. 79). In other words, teacher educators provide knowledge about teaching and learning in university settings, while teacher candidates are expected to apply this to their practice in classrooms as they learn to teach. However, recent research has shown that adopting a “theory first and practice later” perspective has not been effective in supporting teacher candidates in creating strong theory–practice connections (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005; Grossman, 2008; Wideen, Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998).

From: Goodnough et al., 2016.

Step 4: Look at What Other Researchers Have Found/Done

Introductions also often include a very abbreviated literature review, highlighting some of the major findings on the topic before identifying a gap (what has not been found yet). This gap provides the context for your research questions (Step 5) which are framed to help fill the gap.

In the next section of our example, a brief overview of important studies on the topic is given before introducing the gap, and thus this study’s contribution to the field.

Example

While there is no one “best” approach to program design and structure, emerging literature on the integration of theory and practice in teacher preparation suggests a number of useful practices for offering high-quality teacher education programs, such as ensuring coherence across program components (Beck & Kosnik, 2006), developing strong partnerships with schools (Darling-Hammond, 2006), and offering theory-focused course learning with practice-focused field experiences in an integrated manner (Allen, 2009).
Little research exists on how teacher educators understand and experience theory–practice dynamics, thus this study adds to this body of research.

From: Goodnough et al., 2016.

Step 5: Outline the Focus, Purpose, and Main Argument/Research Questions

Once the gap is established, you can announce the focus and purpose of your paper and the research questions (answers to which will help fill the gap). This can also take the form of a main argument/thesis statement where you outline the importance and uniqueness of your argument (a new perspective which thus fills a gap). For more quantitative papers, a hypothesis is used here, which will be confirmed or refuted in the body of the paper (as opposed to a more qualitative and open research question).

In the example below, the authors describe their data sources (focus) and then introduce the research questions. Finally, they outline the purpose of the study by highlighting contributions to the field and key findings.

Example

In this case study, the authors report on data collected from a Canadian faculty of education in which a new post-degree K–12 teacher preparation program was implemented. The following research questions guided this study: (a) What is the nature of theory– practice relationships in a new teacher preparation program? (b) What tensions will arise as theory–practice relationships are manifested in this new teacher preparation program?
This study contributes to the teacher education literature by reporting on how theory–practice relationships were conceptualized and enacted in practice in a teacher preparation program that underwent reform. The study highlights the issues and tensions that arose and explores how these may be addressed or resolved as diverse personal and theoretical perspectives on theory–practice relationships “come to life” in a teacher preparation program.

From: Goodnough et al., 2016.

Bonus Step: End with a ‘Roadmap’ for your Paper

Much like an outline slide in a presentation, a roadmap at the end of an Introduction helps structure the paper and aids your reader in anticipating the organization and key points/sections. Make sure the points in your roadmap match the main headings/sections in your paper.

Roadmap phrases:

This paper first focuses on...
Next, I will look at...
The paper then explains...
Finally, I outline...

See our Resource Page on Signposting for more information.

Example of an Introduction

Literature Review (student sample) (366.38 KB, PDF)

Our Tips

Writers sometimes write their Introductions during the last stage of their overall writing process (after the body paragraphs). We recommend writing a rough draft Introduction at the beginning, and then returning to it again at the end to see if your overall focus or purpose has shifted.
In Step 1, avoid the ‘long distance opening’ which is much too broad for the focus on your paper. For example, a general statement on the field of education as a whole would too broad. Rather, announce your more specific topic (e.g. theory-practice relationships in teacher education) in the first sentence.
With any section of a paper, be aware of your audience and how much background knowledge they already have. For course papers, your professor is the audience, so consider the amount of background information they need for a topic in their field vs. a very specific topic that they probably haven’t explored much before.

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How to Write Reflectively

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Mon, 17 Jun 2024 18:17:18 +0000

How to Write Reflectively ana.lacerda@ma… Mon, 06/17/2024 - 14:17

Skills Categories:

Academic writing

Skills Keywords:

Reflective writing

This Resource Page will help you:

Identify and understand how to use various tools and strategies to engage in multiple forms of reflective writing (e.g., weekly reflections, experiential reflections, critical reflections). 
Understand how reflective writing can be used within various class assignments.

Introduction

Aside from following the rubric provided by your professor/course instructor, reflective writing requires you to achieve thoughtful inquiry that demonstrates your understanding by unpacking your assumptions and knowledge to deepen your analysis of the course material or your practical experiences. In short, the key to reflective writing is to go beyond description and move into analysis.

To learn more about what reflective writing is, check our Resource Page on What is Reflective Writing.

What is Explicit and Tacit Knowledge in Reflective Writing?

To help you understand what it means to engage critically, dig deeper into your assumptions about experiences/materials that you have encountered in class, and reflect on why you may have these assumptions, it’s important to understand the difference between explicit and tacit knowledge.

Explicit knowledge is what we understand or see on the surface.

When we do not actively engage with our explicit knowledge through critical reflection, we reach a shallow understanding of the concepts, ideas, or materials that we are engaging with.

For example, by observation, we can see that the sky is blue – but we can’t explain why the sky is blue.

Tacit knowledge can be difficult to explain because it is influenced by our experiences and level of engagement with literature. In general, understanding what tacit knowledge is comes down to the question of “why” (e.g., why do I think x; why I reacted this way; why do I disagree with this author; why do I think these readings align or do not align with my experiences). Going back to the “blue sky” example, tacit knowledge goes beyond our observation that the sky is blue and allows us to explain why the sky is blue.

While the question of “why” seems simple, it can become difficult to unpack. However, accessing tacit knowledge is key to writing reflectively as it opens the door to understanding our underlying assumptions and provides a way for us to begin engaging in deep thinking and engagement with course materials or experiences.

How Can I Access Tacit Knowledge?

When writing reflectively, the first step is accessing our tacit knowledge. One strategy that helps us do this is freewriting.

What is freewriting?

Freewriting is a pre-writing technique to uncover and identify thoughts surrounding a topic without the pressure of following academic writing conventions. It involves writing continuously, without outlining, in sentence or paragraph form within a set period of time.

Why Should I Freewrite?

By removing the pressure and expectations of academic writing conventions, we can focus those 10-15 minutes on the topic or experience we are being asked to reflect on. When engaging in reflective writing, normally, the first few minutes of writing is about explicit knowledge. However, as we are asked to engage in continuous writing, we may begin to uncover underlying connections and assumptions we weren’t aware of that we can now identify and decide if we want to further engage with through reflective writing.

How Can I freewrite?

While you can tailor freewriting to your needs, here is a general freewriting structure:

Open a fresh document or notebook page.
Set a timer. A common amount of time to freewrite is 10-15 minutes.
Write continuously, as much as possible. Don’t let your pen leave the page.
Step away for 15 to 30 minutes.
Review your freewriting and identify any standout ideas or assumptions you want to explore further through critical reflection.

Tip: if you are an auditory thinker, it may be helpful to record yourself talking about the idea or topic you are engaging with, rather than writing about it.

How to Write Reflectively

Once you have completed freewriting and have identified any standout ideas or assumptions you would like to focus on, you can begin to use the following strategies/tools to help you deepen your reflection.

Strategy 1: Guiding Questions

The following are guiding questions for experiential and reading reflections. These questions can be used to help you further develop and unpack the ideas, connections, and/or assumptions you uncovered when freewriting.

Reading Reflection

Assessing the text(s):

What is the main point? How was it developed?
Identify the purpose, impact, and/or theoretical framework of the text.
What do I know about this topic? Where does my existing knowledge come from? What observations or experiences I have had that shape my understanding of this text?

Develop your ideas:

What do I know about this topic? Where does my existing knowledge come from? What observations or experiences that I have had shape my understanding of this text?
How does this text help me better understand this topic or explore this field of study/discipline?

Experiential Reflection

In general, when engaging in experiential reflection writing assignments, it is important to connect concepts from class to your personal or experiential learning opportunity.

What were your learning goals before starting your practicum, placement, internship, or experiential learning opportunity?
What is the name of the host organization? What is their mission? What are the objectives of the organization? Who do they serve? What was your role? What did you do?
What did you learn from this experience? About yourself? About working in the field? About society? Try to link your learning from your experience to concepts that you encountered in your course.
Did your experience fit with the goals or concepts of the course? Why or why not? What are the lessons learned that you would carry forward in the future? What was successful, and why? What would you do differently, and why?

Strategy 2: Outlining

The following section illustrate two outlining methods: DIEP Model and Gibb’s Reflective Model. These methods are great for those who are new to reflective writing. If you have more experience in reflective writing, these approaches can be helpful in prompting your thinking or ensuring that you have hit common components of reflective writing assignments.

Outlining using the DIEP Model

DIEP stands for Describe/Summarize, Interpret, Evaluate, and Plan. This model can be used for a variety of reflective writing assignments you may encounter in your studies such as reading reflections; weekly journals; and self-assessments.

While each question in the DIEP model can help you determine what pieces of your writing goes where, they can also be used to help prompt your thinking.

1. Describe: What did you read? Be as brief and as objective as possible. It may help to use the following phrases:

What I found interesting from the lecture this week is…
A significant issue I had not realized until…
I now understand…that…

2. Interpret: What new insights have you gained? How does this reading connect with other experiences or concepts you have learned before? It may help to use the following phrases:

This experience is relevant to me because…
This concept relates to another concept that I learned about in…

3. Evaluate: How useful was this reading for you? What is your opinion, did it change from before? Why do you think this might be? It may help to use the following phrases:

Having realized the importance of… I now understand…
This reading will change the way I view…
Being able to see… in this way is valuable for me because…

4. Plan: How can you apply what you have learned in the future? How does this reading relate to the rest of the course or studies?

This is beneficial to my future research because…
I need to develop my understanding of…

Example of Reflective Writing using the DIEP Model

[Topic sentence] The most surprising insight I have gained so far is how important recording and distributing succinct and accurate information is to the success of the project. [Description] In the first week of my internship, I was asked to record some meeting minutes and distribute them to the project team and the client. [I] I initially felt offended as the task appeared trivial to me; it was something we rarely did during team meetings at university. [Evaluate] However, after speaking with my industry supervisor, I began to understand how important it is to keep a clear record of the meaningful points raised during meetings. [Interpret] Making accurate notes of the key outcomes was harder than I expected as the rest of my team was relying on my minutes to know what they needed to do. [Description] After reviewing my minutes, my supervisor agreed that they were sufficiently clear and accurate. [Interpret] I’ve realised that poorly recorded minutes could have resulted in missed deadlines, miscommunication and costly implications for our contract. [Plan] To improve my ability to take notes I plan on reviewing the minutes made by my colleagues for other meetings and to investigate note taking techniques such as mind mapping (Trevelyan, 2014). Mind mapping uses links and annotations to record relationships between words and indicate significance. [Interpret] This will help me to continue to develop my skills in this area and develop my ability to “prepare high quality engineering documents” as part of attaining the Stage 1 competency of written communication (Engineers Australia, 2018).

Trevelyan, J. P. (2014). The making of an expert engineer: How to have a wonderful career creating a better world and spending lots of money belonging to other people. Leiden, The Netherlands: CRC Press/Balkema.

Outlining using Gibb’s Reflective Model

Gibb’s reflective model (1988) is best used to help outline experiential reflections. This model helps you break down your experience into manageable chunks that allow you to structure your assignment:

1. Introduction or description of experience

What happened?

2. Feelings

What were you thinking?

3. Evaluation

What was good and bad about the experience?

4. Analysis

What can you make of the situation? How does it relate to the concepts you learned in class?

5. Conclusion

What else could you have done within your placement?

6. Action Plan

If the situation you are reflecting on arose again, what would you do differently?

Tip: While it is tempting to describe our experiences in detail, when engaging in reflective writing, avoid being too descriptive. Remember, reflective writing invites you to practice critical reflection by going beyond explicit knowledge. Therefore, your analysis of your experience needs to be the substance of your assignment.

Example of Reflective Writing using Gibbs's Model

[Description] Currently, I am on a teaching placement and have just started planning and delivering sections of each lesson. My first session did not go as well as I hoped. My task was to assist students in understanding fractions – because it was my first time, I felt nervous, so I fumbled around. While the students were understanding, the supervising teacher took over because we were running out of time.

[Feelings] I felt miserable, and at the time, considered pausing my teacher placement. I was embarrassed by how I managed my nerves and frustrated at how the supervising teacher managed the situation.

[Evaluation & Analysis] Now, I did not feel that the situation had been managed well or resolved. In class, we read Greene (2014), who explains that nine out of ten new trainee teachers found their first session “incredibly daunting”(p.43). It appears that most trainee teachers have moments of being “tongue-tied” and “losing their way with the lesson” (Parbold, 2009, p.223). This validated my experiences. In addition, I remember reading from Cooper (2011), that it is best to acknowledge and address these situations as soon as they happen.

[Conclusion] In retrospect, I would do several things differently. I should have spoken to the class teacher immediately after the session and voiced my concerns. That way we could have found a way that we both could support my learning as well as the classroom environment.

[Action Plan] In future, I will make sure to build up more of a relationship with colleagues. I am working alongside several different teachers during my placement, and I will speak to each of them about my nerves and find a way to create an environment that is conductive for everyone in the space. I think this can look like making sure I have enough time to prep ahead of time as well as ensuring that when my portion of the lesson comes, we are in less of a time crunch.

To see more examples of reflective writing, see our Resource Page on What is Reflective Writing.

Strategy 3: Reflective Language

The following phrases can help you generate sentences to enhance the flow of your reflective writing. Choose an element from each column and complete your sentence.

Phrases to create interpretative or feeling sentences

For me, the (most)...

meaningful	aspects(s)	was/were…
significant	elements(s)	arose from....
important	issues(s)	happened when…
relevant	idea(s)	resulted from…
useful	lesson(s)	were...

Example: For me, the most relevant ideas resulted from the students' feedback.

Phrases to create sentences that demonstrate a change in previously held knowledge/assumptions

Previously,	I	thought (did not think)
At the time,		felt (did not feel)
At first,		know (did not know)
Initially,		noticed (did not notice)
Subsequently,		question (did not question)
		realized (did not realize)

Example: Initially, I did not realize how I could apply Critical Race Theory within my practicum experience. However, after assisting my supervising teacher with curriculum planning, I am beginning to understand the connection between theory and practice – especially in relation to selecting children’s literature.

Phrases to create planning or action plan sentences

Having	read…	I now	feel…
	experienced…		think…
	applied…		realize…
	analysed…		wonder…
	learned…		question…
			know…

Example: Having read Bell Hooks (1991) “Theory as a Liberatory Practice” I now know how critical theory is related to resistance as it evolves from the continuous work of resisting social construction that is bounded by whiteness.

Our Tips

Be selective. Regardless of the kind of reflective writing assignment, it is important to be selective in your writing. This means that you do not need to discuss every detail of your experience or reading. Instead, pick a few stand-out experiences or ideas that are relevant for your learning or research needs.
Read effectively. When engaging in reflective writing, it is key that you identify the main arguments or important elements of the text to strengthen your analysis. For more info on how to find main points in your readings, check our Resource Page on How to Read Academic Articles.
Use the appropriate tone. While you should use a formal tone in your writing, it is acceptable to write in the first person and use personal pronouns. If you are not sure about what level of formality you should use, check with your instructor.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

On Campus Services

Book a writing consultation (OSSC)

How to Write Cohesively

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Mon, 03 Jun 2024 21:18:34 +0000

How to Write Cohesively ana.lacerda@ma… Mon, 06/03/2024 - 17:18

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, English language

Skills Keywords:

Grammar, Vocabulary, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the significance of cohesion in academic writing
Write logical and smooth connections between ideas
Address your readers to guide them through your ideas
Improve the overall readability of your written work

What is Cohesion?

In academic writing, ideas must stick together logically (cohesion) and make sense as a whole (coherence).

Coherence (i.e., “how ideas make sense as a whole”) is related to logic and flow in the text and facilitates the overall understanding of your writing.

Cohesion (i.e., “how ideas stick together”) refers to the interrelatedness of sentences in a text to create a sense of unity. Cohesion is essential because it affects how the text and the ideas are structured and ultimately understood.

Check the following example. Text A is cohesive; Text B is the same text without any cohesive elements.

Text A

This research argues against the effectiveness of a particular model of understanding teaching. The model is criticized for being limited by an intellectualist bias in its conceptualization of the mind and for having a narrow definition of excellence, particularly in the context of actual classrooms. The text suggests that excellent teachers, dealing with real-time challenges, are too immersed in the immediate classroom situation to engage in critical reflection on their beliefs. The act of stepping back and critically evaluating one's choices is seen as potentially disruptive to the flow of the classroom, missing valuable teaching opportunities. The text further describes the peculiar phenomenology of the teacher experience, emphasizing the quick and intuitive decision-making process without a reliance on consciously held beliefs. The argument concludes that teacher education programs focusing on reflective models may overlook the fundamental importance of teachers' intuitive responsiveness to classroom dynamics.

Taken from: García, J. & Lewis, T. (2014). Getting a Grip on the Classroom: From Psychological to Phenomenological Curriculum Development in Teacher Education Programs. Curriculum Inquiry, 44(2), 141-168, DOI: 10.1111/curi.12042

Text B

This research argues against the effectiveness of a particular model of understanding teaching. It is criticized for being limited by an intellectualist bias in its conceptualization of the mind and for having a narrow definition of excellence, particularly in the context of actual classrooms. Excellent teachers, dealing with real-time challenges, are too immersed in the immediate classroom situation to engage in critical reflection on their beliefs. The act of stepping back and critically evaluating one's choices is seen as potentially disruptive to the flow of the classroom, missing valuable teaching opportunities. The peculiar phenomenology of the teacher experience includes a quick and intuitive decision-making process without a reliance on consciously held beliefs. Teacher education programs focusing on reflective models may overlook the fundamental importance of teachers' intuitive responsiveness to classroom dynamics.

Text B lacks connective devices/transition phrases to guide the reader through the logical order of the arguments, so the text is disjointed and difficult to follow. Also, the second sentence uses an unclear pronoun (it) rather than repeating the key noun (the model). When you read Text B, it may sound fragmented and lacking flow, with unclear connections between sentences.

Cohesion plays an important role in guiding your readers through your writing and ideas by connecting ideas and maintaining a smooth narrative. Without cohesive devices, the text loses its structure and becomes inaccessible to the readers.

How to Write Cohesively?

Writing cohesive and coherent texts means using linguistic and structural techniques to link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs to ensure the writing is easy to follow. Effective cohesion strategies include:

Repeating key nouns
Using pronouns consistently
Using transitions to link ideas
Arranging your ideas in a logical order

1. Repeat key nouns

Repeating key nouns frequently in your paragraphs is a common strategy to make the sentences flow smoothly. Have a look at the following example and feedback:

Example + Feedback

Example: However, Mateo underlined the relation of self-transformation to social transformation, as self-love grows into collective liberation. Because Mateo expressed excitement for a world of love and joy for queer and trans people of color, mediated by the Queer Eye X Lizzo video, I asked him if he saw himself in the video now or felt that it represented a future he could be a part of someday. Mateo emphasized, “I can see myself being a part of it in the future, but right now, I’m at the beginning, the start of the line.” Mateo shared that being at the beginning, “feels like I’m more comfortable just being around myself.” He theorized that the future he imagined alongside the video “has to start with me, so I can kind of, in a way, spread it to others.”

Taken from: Shrodes, A. (2023) “The word ‘getting over’ is really weird”: Storying disability in desired futures. Curriculum Inquiry, DOI: 10.1080/03626784.2023.2206932

Feedback: The key noun (Mateo) is consistently employed throughout the text to maintain sentence coherence.

2. Use pronouns consistently

In academic writing, using consistent pronouns is key for a clear and cohesive text. Since pronouns do not denote meaning by themselves, they need referents, i.e., a topic or a noun elsewhere in the text they refer to.

Example + Feedback

Example: Our experiences as white teacher educators—in our work in classrooms often filled with white women future teachers, as well as in our work with white practicing teachers, community members, and university colleagues—have taught us about the ubiquity and potency of stereotypes in the white racial imagination. As Zeus Leonardo (2005) reminded us, “Critical work on race does not only study its real manifestations and deem everything else ghosts of the real; it must critically understand … how people imagine race in their daily lives” (p. 404). We believe that our teacher education efforts are haunted and undermined by the workings and power of racist stereotypes. Our hope is that attending to Mammy and Brute Negro stereotypes with more sophistication and insight might help us, ultimately, more effectively work with white women in teacher education, particularly related to concepts of culturally relevant pedagogies. In our conclusion, we frame crucial questions and challenges that confront us, given our retelling and analysis of Danielle’s and Lily’s stories.

Taken from: Taken from: Miller, E. & Lensmire, T. (2020). Mammies, brute Negroes, and white femininity in teacher education, Curriculum Inquiry, 50(5), 400-418, DOI: 10.1080/03626784.2020.1860643

Feedback: In this example, the authors refer to themselves as they examine two stories about white femininity. Pronouns are crucial in referencing earlier noun phrases (referents), as seen in the example where ‘our,’ ‘us,’ and ‘we’ refer to the authors and their involvement in the academic narrative. This enhancement in readability stems from the precision and cohesion achieved in every sentence.

3. Use transitions to link ideas

In academic writing, transition words are helpful to achieve cohesion by linking ideas and providing a sense of movement that will help your readers understand the connections you wish to convey in your text. Some transition words can be helpful to

start a paragraph
link secondary sentences within a paragraph
conclude and/or bridge ideas in a paragraph to move on to the following one.

Check below different categories of transition words, their purposes and examples.

Addition

Purpose: To add extra information

Linking word examples: also, too, as well, above all, in addition, similarly, correspondingly (formal), equally, likewise, in the same way, by the same token, and. More emphatic: actually, besides, moreover, furthermore, in fact, what is more, as a matter of fact

Written sentences examples: Additionally, this study engages the AsianCrit tenet of story, theory, and praxis. CRT recognizes stories as an essential tool for the survival and liberation of oppressed groups; within CRT, stories are often used as a means of psychic self-preservation and/or to lessen members of oppressed groups’ own subordination. Furthermore, when members of oppressed groups share their stories, such storytelling may shatter complacency, challenge the status quo, and engage conscience (Delgado, 1989).

Naseem, N. (2020). “Invisibility is not a natural state for anyone”: (Re)constructing narratives of Japanese American incarceration in elementary classrooms, Curriculum Inquiry, 50(4), 309-329, DOI: 10.1080/03626784.2020.1831369

Time

Purpose: To sequence, to situate in time, to order chronologically

Linking word examples: first, second, third, then, meanwhile, in the meantime, originally, first of all, afterwards, next, eventually, subsequently, finally, at last, in the end

Written sentences examples: The language chosen to speak on behalf of the five billion inhabitants of the globe is English. Meanwhile, back on the surface of the earth, from a small radio in a township shack in Soweto, come tumbling the words of a song by Johnny Clegg and Savuka.

Pennycook, A. (2017). The cultural politics of English as an international language. Routledge.

Comparison

Purpose: To compare points

Linking word examples: similarly, in the same way, likewise

Written sentences examples: However, the metapragmatic evaluation “this is not an English class” raised by Valentina earlier, can easily cross over between sectors. Similarly, a negative student evaluation of a pedagogical interaction based on relevance to a specific objective, such as gaining fluency to improve employment prospects, can easily be complemented by an evaluation based on moral objectionability.

Windle, J.A. & de Araujo Rosa, J. (2023). Navigating Critical Language Education at the Crossroads of Neonationalism and Neoliberalism: The Role of Border Talk. TESOL J, 57. 752-774.

Contrast

Purpose: To show differences

Linking word examples: however, on the contrary, by contrast, in contrast, on the other hand, instead, in fact, conversely, yet.

Written sentences examples: According to the JD-R model, job demands comprise job characteristics that require effort and are linked to higher strain and burnout (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Yet, empirical studies have shown that not all job demands have direct and solely negative effects (Crawford et al., 2010); Van den Broeck et al., 2010).

Jörg, V., Hartmann, U., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2023). Teachers' proactive behaviour: Interactions with job characteristics and professional competence in a longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 00, e12642. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12642

Exclusion

Purpose: to show options.

Linking word examples: alternatively, on the one hand-on the other hand, rather, Or (else)

Written sentences examples: Both positions have their limitations. On the one hand, identity politics’ inclination towards essentialism threatens to naturalize difference and reproduce dominant cultural assumptions. On the other hand, the idea that “gender” or “race” are fictions threatens to invisibilize difference altogether, along with the power relationships that create it (Alcoff, 1988, 2006).

Tien, J. (2019). Teaching identity vs. positionality: Dilemmas in social justice education, Curriculum Inquiry, 49(5), 526-550, DOI: 10.1080/03626784.2019.1696150

Concession

Purpose: To concede information

Linking word examples: still, however, all the same, even so, that said, nevertheless. More formally: nonetheless, notwithstanding. More informally: anyhow, anyway, only, though, but, yet

Written sentences examples: In other words, Mock Spanish invokes stigmatizing stereotypes about Latinas/os without making such stereotypes explicit. The most profound aspect of this process, however, is not that it frames “Spanish speakers” (regardless of national background and ethnoracial identity) in particular ways, but that it specifically produces “Latina/o” as a U.S. racial category.

Rosa, J. (2016). 'From Mock Spanish to Inverted Spanglish: Language Ideologies and the Racialization of Mexican and Puerto Rican Youth in the United States', in H. Samy Alim, John R. Rickford, and Arnetha F. Ball (eds), Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Ideas About Race. Oxford Academic.

Reason

Purpose: To explain points.

Linking word examples: Therefore, for that matter, accordingly, on account of this, that is why.

Written sentences examples: New perspectives conveyed through shared dialogue result in complex understandings. Therefore, dialectical constructivist theory privileges a social nexus that is facilitated (Vygotsky, 1986) by an instructor rather controlled by one.

Lahey, T. (2023). From college to classroom: Using virtual collaborative inquiry to support first-year teachers with classroom management. Journal of Education, 0(0). DOI: 10.1177/00220574231166014

Result

Purpose: To demonstrate results

Linking word examples: as a result, therefore, accordingly, consequently, in consequence, of course, hence. Formal: as a consequence, in consequence, thus.

Written sentences examples: As a result, students themselves began identifying as “people with privilege” and using the frameworks of “privileged” vs. “unprivileged” people. For example, in his final reflection on the course, Peter wrote that, “I am learning that as a person of privilege, I need to find ways to give up some power, while stewarding those things that I cannot give up.”

Tien, J. (2019). Teaching identity vs. positionality: Dilemmas in social justice education, Curriculum Inquiry, 49(5), 526-550, DOI: 10.1080/03626784.2019.1696150

Purpose

Purpose: To indicate directions

Linking word examples: thus, for this purpose, therefore, with this in mind

Written sentences examples: The importance of a research article is routinely measured by counting how many times it has been cited. However, treating all citations with equal weight ignores the wide variety of functions that citations perform. We want to automatically identify the subset of references in a bibliography that have a central academic influence on the citing paper. For this purpose, we examine the effectiveness of a variety of features for determining the academic influence of a citation.

Zhu, X., Turney, P., Lemire, D., & Vellino, A. (2015). Measuring academic influence: Not all citations are equal. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 66(2), 408-427.

Condition

Purpose: To indicate conditions

Linking word examples: if so, if not, in that case, that being so, in such an event, Then, Under such circumstances

Written sentences examples: If we accept that colonialism is varied and operates in different contexts, then our responses have to be multiple, and we are obliged to acknowledge the inherent tensions between competing visions of anti-colonialism.

Dei, G. S. & Lordan, M. (2016). Anti-colonial theory and decolonial praxis. Peter Lang.

Enumeration

Purpose: To sequence multiple points

Linking word examples: for one thing (... for another thing), In the first place, Secondly, next, then (again), finally, in the first/second place, first of all, to begin with, to start with; Especially in formal and technical use: we find a.... b .... c...., one ... two .... three....

Written sentences examples: First, and in the most obvious sense, English is worldly by dint of its vast global expansion. Second, English is worldly in the sense that a person may be called worldly: it has been and is constantly in the process of being changed by its position in the world. And third, it is in the world, it is part of the world; to use English is to engage in social action which produces and reproduces social and cultural relations.

Pennycook, A. (2017). The cultural politics of English as an international language. Routledge.

Summative

Purpose: To summarize and synthesize information

Linking word examples: all in all, altogether, overall, thus, in conclusion, in sum, to sum up, to conclude, to summarise, in short, after all

Written sentences examples: This code definition connects, albeit broadly, to the wider construct of autonomy referenced above but is also grounded in our data capturing teachers’ perceptions and reported actions of autonomy both in response to interview questions about the pacing guide and beyond. Thus, we conceptually aligned the notion of having autonomy with deviating from the pacing guide and approached the excerpts coded for Deviating with the goal of compiling evidence of teacher autonomy.

Exemplification

Purpose: To provide examples

Linking word examples: for example, namely, e.g. , for instance, to illustrate, as an example

Written sentences examples: Race is also a point of connection to the English language for critical teachers who seek to reposition English as a language of protest and solidarity, for example, through discussions of the Black Lives Matter movement.

Windle, J.A. & de Araujo Rosa, J. (2023). Navigating Critical Language Education at the Crossroads of Neonationalism and Neoliberalism: The Role of Border Talk. TESOL J, 57. 752-774.

Clarification

Purpose: To explain points

Linking word examples: In other words, put differently, namely, thus, that is (to say), i.e. , (I mean), in fact.

Written sentences examples: Yet, the racializing effects of Mock Spanish do not apply to a large number of the individuals who would seem to fit into this category, namely many Spaniards and other “historically Spanish-speaking populations” that are not racialized as non-White in the ways that millions of U.S. Latinas/os are.

Identification

Purpose: To identify specific information

Linking word examples: namely, specifically, especially, in particular

Written sentences examples: We did not observe any differences in the level of teachers' personal initiative with regard to their gender, age, years of professional experience, school track or full-time versus part-time positions. Regarding the job characteristics and aspects of professional competence, only one factor, namely, personal initiative of the team, showed a significant difference between teachers of different school tracks: Higher track teachers reported significantly lower values (M = 2.72, SD = .99) than lower track teachers (M = 3.50, SD = .90, t(105) = 2.44, p = .016, d = .48).

Inference

Purpose: To deduce and infer implicit information

Linking word examples: In that case, in other words, then, otherwise, else, more accurately, more precisely

Written sentences examples: “Even if [classroom management] preparation was sufficient, teacher education would need to be explicit about how classroom management could be adapted, integrated, or reconceptualized towards shifting classroom demographics” (p. 207). In other words, the SEL must be culturally compatible.

Lahey, T. (2023). From college to classroom: Using virtual collaborative inquiry to support first-year teachers with classroom management. Journal of Education, 0(0). https://doi-org.myaccess.

Digression

Purpose: To introduce new points not mentioned before

Linking word examples: incidentally, as a matter of fact, at any rate

Written sentences examples: Decolonial epistemic reconstitutions, and the politics of decolonial investigations, aim to overcome the hegemony of the “European paradigm of modernity/rationality” and take the first two trajectories (deWesternization and reWesternization) as a field of investigation. As a matter of fact, setting up the current world order as the conflict between the rise of de- Westernization and the counterrevolution of reWesternization is a decolonial conceptualization of epistemic reconstitutions to understand the current world order emerging from five hundred years of Westernization.

Mignolo, W. (2021). The politics of decolonial investigations. Duke University Press.

4. Arrange ideas in a logical order

Another method to enhance cohesion involves organizing sentences in a specific order. Your choice will depend on your topic and writing purpose. Two common forms include chronological order and logical division of ideas.

Chronological Order

Chronological order concerns the organization of ideas representing a sequence of events or steps within a process. In the example, the authors provide a sequence of steps where they establish cohesion through strategic use of sequence markers like first, second, third, finally.

Example: First, drawing on her own experiences and critical consciousness calls as a Chicana Spanish-speaker, Andrea immediately noticed the low number of Spanish speakers in her program and the imbalanced requirements in the teacher qualification policy (Freire, 2021). In turn, Andrea and her colleagues engaged in four additional critical consciousness actions (see Palmer et al., 2019). Together they committed to developing similar habits of continuously interrogating power during regularly scheduled PLC gatherings where they reviewed DLBE policy information on program aspects whose fairness they questioned. Second, the group historicized schools in DLBE by looking backward at the history of bilingual education to have a larger sense of the possibilities for focusing on the civil rights era issues still at play in the current DLBE climate. Third, the group engaged in critical listening as they encouraged one another to be courageous and calmly express disagreement when necessary as they made different arguments for what constituted fairness. Finally, teachers got better at engaging with discomfort.

From: Valdéz, V., Delavan, G., & Freire, J. (2023). Using critical policy analysis in collaborative professional learning communities to enhance dual language bilingual educators’ critical consciousness in Lisa M. Dorner, Deborah Palmer, Claudia G. Cervantes-Soon, Dan Heiman, and Emily R. Crawford (Eds.) Critical consciousness in dual language bilingual education: Case studies on policy and practice (First Edition). Routledge.

Logical Division

Logical division consists of the categorization of ideas into parts for clarity, with each part discussed separately.

Example: The chapters in the teaching and teacher learning section, like the previous sections, span a broad range of contexts and experiences. Taken together, they illustrate how the overlapping actions of critical consciousness can be embodied in schools through classroom practice and teacher learning.
The first two chapters provide an intersectional lens that actively aims to interrogate binaries, to critically listen to current problems in DLBE spaces, and to accompany Black and LGBTQ+ students.
The final four chapters in the teaching and teacher learning section demonstrate the need to interrogate white-stream conceptualizations of academic achievement, bilingualism/biliteracy, and intercultural competence, the three traditional goals of DLBE (Howard et al., 2018).

From: Dorner, L. M., Palmer, D. K., Cervantes-Soon, C. G., Heiman, D., & Crawford, E. R. (Eds.). (2023). Critical consciousness in dual language bilingual education: Case studies on policy and practice (First Edition). Routledge.

Types of Transitions

Transitions in an academic text can be written using a single word, a phrase, a sentence, or even an entire paragraph. In this way, you provide your readers with signals about how to read through your text. Transitions are generally used for three purposes: linking sections, linking paragraphs and linking ideas within paragraphs.

1. Transitions between sections

This type of transition is frequent in longer texts (e.g., book chapters and scholarly papers) to link information in one section to what follows in the next. These links are necessary to ensure the continuity of the text. Note that these are larger shifts between topics than the transitions between paragraphs below.

Example

Despite the benefits of social interaction with host-nationals, many international students experienced only superficial contact with Americans, and give up hope of establishing deep cross-cultural relationships (Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992).

Taken from: MICUSP International Students in the United States: Developing Interpersonal Relationships for Cross-cultural Adjustment and Intercultural Maturity

Explanation

This writer uses a contrastive device (Despite) to transition from the topic of the previous section (benefits) to the focus of the current section (barriers to interaction). This is the topic sentence of the first paragraph in this section.

2. Transitions between paragraphs

Transitions between paragraphs are similar to transitions between sections as their purpose is to let the readers know that the upcoming content will experience a shift (contrast, addition, further explanation, etc.) from the content of the previous paragraph. As paragraphs contain a single controlling idea, the change or shift to new arguments, ideas, and information should happen in the following paragraph. These shifts are generally still on the same topic, as opposed to the shifts between sections (new topics) outlined above. For instance, a shift between sections might be benefits -> challenges while a shift between paragraphs may look like benefit 1 -> benefit 2.

As with section transitions, paragraph transitions can be strategically positioned in different locations within the text. Oftentimes, they are located at the end of the first paragraph, the beginning of the second paragraph, or at both junctures.

Example

Another argument for avoidance is that histories like the Holocaust are too horrific and complex for children to adequately understand, so they should not be introduced at all (Totten, 1999).

In contrast, supporters of teaching difficult histories to children have often argued for their instructive nature: to learn lessons from the past, so that we do not forget and do not repeat our mistakes (Rodríguez, 2019).

Naseem, N. (2020). “Invisibility is not a natural state for anyone”: (Re)constructing narratives of Japanese American incarceration in elementary classrooms. Curriculum Inquiry, 50(4), 309-329, DOI: 10.1080/03626784.2020.1831369

Explanation

The author uses a single expression (in contrast) to signal a shift in perspective in her argumentation. She introduces a new line of thought, presenting the opposing stance of supporters who argue for the educational value of teaching difficult histories to children. This signals a shift in the narrative, emphasizing the instructive nature of difficult histories and the potential lessons that can be learned to avoid repeating mistakes.

3. Transitions within paragraphs

As with transitions between sections and paragraphs, transitions within paragraphs act as cues to help readers anticipate what is coming next as well as understand the types of logical relationships between sentences (contrast, addition, etc.). Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases.

Example

Virtually every definition of culture (e.g., Hofstede 1980, Mead 1955) suggests that it represents a coalescence of discrete behavioral norms and cognitions shared by individuals within some definable population that are distinct from those shared within other populations. These normative beliefs and behaviors provide resources for realizing individual and collective goals, and so are often institutionalized in a variety of formal and informal ways. Moreover, there exist means for transmitting beliefs and behaviors to new members of the cultural population, so that the norms defining a culture may persist over very long periods of time.

Taken from: https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/LehmanChiuSchaller2004.pdf

Explanation

The use of ‘Moreover’ adds another point to the main idea of cultural norms.

Our Tips

Achieving cohesion takes time, so be patient and practice your writing. While you write your assignments, ensure that you make conscious decisions about connecting ideas and establishing relationships among ideas and paragraphs.
Avoid excessive use of linking words as it may overload the text, diminishing their effectiveness in maintaining flow and reader comprehension. Also, avoid only placing linking words at the beginning of the sentence (vary their usage).
Read out loud or have a computer read your writing. Listen to your assignment and think if, first, it makes sense to you and if it will make sense to somebody else. You will be able to notice important gaps when you listen to your own writing.
Show your paper to somebody else. Remember that cohesion concerns your readers and how they understand and react to your ideas.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

On Campus Services

How to Talk to your Readers: Signposting

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Mon, 03 Jun 2024 17:01:08 +0000

How to Talk to your Readers: Signposting ana.lacerda@ma… Mon, 06/03/2024 - 13:01

How to Talk to your Readers: Signposting

Introduction
Signposting Order
Signposting Relations
Help & Additional Resources

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, English language

Skills Keywords:

Grammar, Vocabulary, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

learn what signposting is and what it's used for
learn how to effectively use signposting vocabulary

Introduction

Academic writing can be understood as a type of formal conversation where you need to effectively engage your readers, and signposting is a very common strategy for this purpose.

Signposting means telling your reader what you will do in your paper and its sections, how you will organize the content, and what you have done in previous sections. Signposting is like a “road map” that guides your readers through the content and organization of your paper.

In this Resource Page, you will learn two types of signposting that are frequent in academic writing: Order and Relations.

Signposting Order

These signposting phrases direct readers through your writing, provide a ‘roadmap’ for the order in which you will talk about things, help readers stay on track throughout, and remind them of key information.

Signposting order can be especially useful for introductions, conclusions, transitioning from one significant idea to another, or discussing methods and procedures.

Here are six common types of signposting order:

Listing
Foreshadowing
Changing Topic
Going Backward
Progress
Summary

1. Listing

Listing signposting consists of phrases that will facilitate the reader’s understanding of the logic and sequence of the text.

In the example below, the author uses a typical listing strategy to sequence the arguments.

Let me identify what I take to be the potential dangers here. In the first place, one finds that Levinas’s work is understood and used within a discourse of multiculturalism. There are indeed rich resources in Levinas that can con- tribute to enquiry of this kind, but things go wrong, for example, where his understanding of the Other is assimilated to a politics of recognition. Second, there is the tendency to enlist his work in something like a psychology of dialogical relations, perhaps of student-teacher relations, where the aim is better communication. This may seem close to Levinas’s concerns, but the problem is that such communication is understood as a matter of personal relations and, it should be added, with a relative indifference to the content of what is communicated. Sometimes, a third point, Levinas’s work has been interpreted in a way that relies excessively on a vocabulary of transcendence, causing it to be rarefied and detached from the quotidian circumstances of human lives. That vocabulary easily becomes incantatory, and its reiteration stands in the way of a more exact realization of the practical significance of ideas in question. Finally, the reception of Levinas’s thought suffers from a more general problem, regarding the understanding of poststructuralism.

Standish, P. (2008). Levinas and the language of curriculum in Egéa-Kuehne (Ed.), Levinas and education at the intersection of faith and reason. Routledge.

More Listing Phrases:

The first section of this paper will examine ...
This paper begins by ... It will then go on to ...
The essay has been organised in the following way: ...
The remaining part of the paper proceeds as follows: ...
The main issues addressed in this paper are a), b) and c).
This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X.
This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...
This topic can best be treated under three headings: X, Y, and Z.
The key aspects of (topic) can be listed as follows: X, Y, and Z.
There are three reasons why X. These are ...
This section has been included for several reasons: X ...; Y ...; and Z...
The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are ...

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

2. Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing phrases anticipate what will happen in the upcoming parts of the text. They typically open the writing and are a central part of introductions. The main function of foreshadowing signposting is to preview the content to come, as opposed to the organization of the text (as in listing signposting above).

In the example below, the author previews upcoming content with the phrase “In the next section”.

In the next section, I will examine some of the implications of Goals 2000 and No Child Left Behind on the educational situation of immigrant children, the roles of state and federal legislatures in passing legislation, as well as the role of the courts in deciding issues of contention - in essence, issues of federalism. I argue that this ground-breaking trend toward a convergence of federal power in directing educational policies is unlikely to be successful without more input from states, especially in meeting the needs of immigrant groups within states.

Taken from MICUSP: National Identity and Language Education Policy.

More Foreshadowing Phrases:

This study set out to explore...
The aim of the chapter is to introduce …
This chapter seeks to assess the impact of …
This chapter is subdivided into three sections. The first section will attempt to assess whether …
The second part highlights the key theoretical concepts which …
This chapter contextualises the research by providing background information on …
This chapter discusses the specific methods by which the research and analyses were conducted.
The next chapter describes synthesis and evaluation of ...
A summary of the main findings, together with …, is provided in the next chapter.
The next chapter describes the procedures and methods used in this investigation …
In the next section, I will present the principal findings of the current investigation ...
These analytical procedures and the results obtained from them are described in the next chapter.

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

3. Changing Topic

This type of signposting is a straightforward way to tell your readers that you have stopped developing specific topics in your discussion. Rather than simply previewing the next topic, as in foreshadowing signposting, changing topic signposting mentions the previous focus and then announces the shift.

In the example below, the writer accomplishes this with the phrases “Now that we have considered” (previous topic) and “let us move to” (new topic).

Now that we have considered the treatment of multiple hedging in the research literature, let us move to a brief overview of some textbooks used for teaching academic writing, which will not only give examples of the different extents to which hedging is covered in textbooks (which is explained in much more detail by Hyland 1994) but will also give an indication of whether or not textbooks devote time or focus to multiple hedging and the question of its acceptability or to underhedging and overhedging as potential problem areas for students.

Taken from MICUSP: Attitudes towards and Frequency of Multiple Hedging in Written Academic English

4. Going Backward

Backward signposting is helpful when you need to remind your readers about points you have made previously in your text which are useful to provide continuity to your arguments.

In the example below, the author reminds the reader of a point made earlier in the text with the phrase “As previously stated”.

As previously stated, there are many different ways in which so can be used. Many of these uses cannot be placed into the anaphoric, discourse marker or deictic categories. Because of this we have created this other examples section where we will explain some of the other types of so.

More Phrases to Go Backward:

As discussed above, …
As explained earlier, …
As previously stated, …
As indicated previously, …
As described on the previous page, …
As was mentioned in the previous chapter, …
Returning (briefly) to the (subject/issue) of X, …
As explained in the introduction, it is clear that …
As was pointed out in the introduction to this paper, …
As mentioned in the literature review, ...

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

5. Progress

Progress signposting is helpful to let the readers know where they are in the discussion, or as a reminder, such as drawing the reader’s attention to previously stated information, especially when your writing is lengthy. Progress signposting also signals to the readers that there is more material to come.

In the example below, the writer reminds the reader of their progress through the text up to this point (“So far, we discussed”) and then adds additional information (“We showed that”). In the final sentence, “However” is used to signal that the discussion will now more on to a new focus.

So far, we discussed the implication of considering different forms of knowledge according to their nature (i.e. modal vs. amodal) or their level of abstractness for explaining conceptual activities (i.e. categorization or generalization effects). We showed that conceptual activities could be explained thanks to a global-matching process that occurred on modal exemplars instead of using multiple forms of memory representation. However, it might still be possible that we use different forms of knowledge depending on the nature of the activity (i.e. memory activities vs. perceptual activities).

More Phrases to Indicate Progress:

The studies presented thus far provide evidence that ...
Two important themes emerge from the studies discussed so far:
In view of all that has been mentioned so far, one may suppose that ...
Thus far, the thesis has argued that …

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

6. Summary

Summary signposting is helpful to conclude a paper or specific section and highlight the central takeaways.

In the example below, the author employs “In sum” and “This chapter addressed” to draw attention to the “evidence reviewed in the chapter,” which reinforces the key findings.

In sum, evidence exists for the mental simulation of space, speed and time in the comprehension of both word and sentences. Importantly, the relationship between language and perception appears to be bidirectional (language affects perception and vice versa)…
This chapter addressed the embodiment of language about space, speed and time. These three domains may less obviously be grounded in our perceptual processes for two reasons…
The evidence reviewed in this chapter has shown that space, speed and time are in fact dimensions that are included in mental simulations, or situation models, built during discourse comprehension.

More Phrases to Summarize Literature:

Together, these studies indicate that ...
Overall, these studies highlight the need for ...
Considering all of this evidence, it seems that ...
Collectively, these studies outline …
In all the studies reviewed here, X is recognised as …
The evidence presented in this section suggests that ...
Taken together, these studies support the notion that …
Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that ...
Together these studies provide important insights into the ...
All of the studies reviewed here support the hypothesis that …
These research findings reported here consistently point towards …
The evidence reviewed here seems to suggest a pertinent role for …
These studies clearly indicate that there is a relationship between …

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

More Phrases to Summarize Sections of your Paper:

The previous section has shown that …
To conclude this section, the literature identifies …
This section has reviewed the three key aspects of …
In summary, it has been shown from this review that …
This chapter has described the methods used in this investigation and it has …
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the literature relating to …

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

More Phrases to Summarize Findings and Conclusions:

This study has identified …
The research has also shown that …
The second major finding was that …
These experiments confirmed that...
This study has found that generally …
The investigation of X has shown that …
The results of this investigation show that …
The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that …
One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that …

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

Signposting Relations

You can use this type of signposting to show that you are constructing logical steps in your writing, show the relationship between your ideas, and make them clear to the reader.

Here are five common types of signposting relations:

Explaining
Similarity
Contrast
Cause-effect
Emphasis

1. Explaining

In academic writing, clarity is fundamental. Explaining expressions guide your readers through your ideas to enhance their understanding.

In the following example, the writer proposes a redefinition/reclassification of key terms in their paper, using explaining expressions to make sure this is clear to the reader.

The terms citizenship education and civic education have typically been used interchangeably to refer to aspects of the school curriculum- whether formal or informal- that prepare young people for their roles as citizens. However, I would like to propose that we consider these terms in a more nuanced manner and to think of them as distinct entities.

Adapted from MICUSP: Schools and the development of national identity in young children: A justification for comparison.

More phrases to clarify concepts, theories or processes:

Throughout this paper, the term ‘X’ will refer to ...
The term ‘X’ will be used in this thesis to refer to …
Historically, the term ‘X’ has been used to describe …
It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by ...
The phrase ‘X’ will be used in this study to describe the …
According to Smith (2002), X can be defined as follows: ‘ ... ’
In this article, the abbreviation XYZ will be used to refer to ...
Throughout this dissertation, the term ‘X’ will be used to refer to ...
The term ‘X’ is a relatively new name for ..., commonly referred to as ...
In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all ...
In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean ...

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

2. Similarity

Drawing parallels between ideas is a crucial signposting strategy. Establishing similarities fosters cohesion and aids in illustrating associations between concepts or other texts, enriching the depth of your discussion.

In the following example, the writer draws parallels between anti-immigration sentiment in the United States at different time periods.

There are many similarities between the immigration debates that occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century and those that are occurring now, almost one hundred years later... In the mid-nineteenth century, many Irish Catholics immigrants were also vilified and looked upon with mistrust. Even earlier, Native Americans cannot have been happy at the arrival of the white Anglo-Saxon Protestants who took over their land. Hopefully, the understanding that no matter who we are, those who were here before us looked upon our arrival with suspicion will help us change our attitude towards immigration, and to realize that each new wave of immigrants has brought positive changes to the United States. The current new wave will too, if we only give them the opportunity.

Taken from MICUSP: Immigration and Americanization: Then and Now.

More phrases to establish similarity:

Both X and Y share a number of key features.
There are a number of similarities between X and Y.
The effects of X on Y are similar to those of Z.
Both X and Y generally take place in .
These results are similar to those reported by (Smith et al. 1999).
This definition is similar to that found in (Smith, 2001) who writes:
The X is similar to that of comparable studies (e.g. Smith et al. 1999).
The approach used in this investigation is similar to that used by other researchers.
Studies have compared Xs in Ys and found that they are essentially identical.

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

3. Contrast

In academic writing, signaling contrast is essential to clearly delineating differences between concepts, theories, or perspectives, either your own or among other thinkers, time periods, etc.

In the following passage, the writer contrasts Dewey’s educational ideas with those of traditional schooling through the use of signposting language, such as "rather than," "unlike," and "whereas,".

Dewey’s new educational ideas were centered around a classroom in which children would be active participants, exploring the world around them, guided by a teacher, rather than the traditional schooling where they were required to memorize facts given by the teacher. Unlike traditional schooling, which was set up to teach a large group of children the same information, Dewey’s ideal school would individualize instruction, and students would learn at their own rates. In short, the traditional method of schooling was centered on the teacher and the textbook, whereas Dewey’s method focused on the individual student.

Taken from MICUSP: Curriculum Changes in the Progressive Era and Great Depression

More phrases to establish contrast:

Unlike Smith, Jones (2014) has argued …
In contrast to Smith, Jones (2014) maintains …
Despite this, little progress has been made in the ...
However, this system also has a number of serious drawbacks.
On the other hand, in spite of these recent findings about the role of ...,
X is different from Y in a number of respects.
X differs from Y in a number of important ways.
There are a number of important differences between X and Y.
Areas where significant differences have been found include X and Y.
In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected.
A descriptive case study differs from an exploratory study in that it uses …

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

4. Cause-effect

In academic writing, using clear markers of cause-effect allow you as a writer to show the connections between actions and outcomes,

In the following example, the writer frames the research questions around causes and effects.

A handful of scholars have focused on this issue and have used a variety of methods to research the following types of questions: What has caused the growing use of part-time faculty at community colleges? Should it be a concern? What are its effects? How should it be addressed?

Taken from MICUSP: Growing Trend of Part-Time Faculty at Community Colleges.

More phrases to establish cause-effect relations:

X may have been an important factor in ...
X may have contributed to the increase in ...
X may have been caused by an increase in ...
X may have played a vital role in bringing about ...
In the literature, X has been associated with Y.
X in many cases may be associated with ...
There is some evidence that X may affect Y.
It is not yet clear whether X is made worse by Y.
This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y.
The use of X may be linked to ...

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

5. Emphasis

In academic writing, emphasis is often key to conveying the significance of specific ideas. Emphasizing expressions through careful word choice or repetition ensures that crucial points stand out, enhancing readers' comprehension of your main arguments.

In the following text, the writer emphasizes one particular finding that they want the reader to pay attention to, possibly because this is where their topic leads next.

This increasing population of international students, especially from Asia, in the United States faces special challenges in terms of adaptation to a new living and learning environment at host universities and colleges (Perrucci & Hu, 1995). In addition to academic pressures, many international students tend to experience a variety of adjustment concerns, including language difficulties, insufficient financial resources, social integration, challenges in daily life tasks, homesickness, and role conflicts (Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992). Interestingly, several studies suggest that students from Asia have more difficulty adjusting to life in the United States than international students from non-Asian countries (Abe, Talbot & Geelhoed, 1998).

Taken from MICUSP: International Student Adjustment.

More phrases to demonstrate emphasis:

Most significantly...
Interestingly...
Notably...
Most importantly...
It is well known that …
It is a well-known fact that …
Smith’s well-known argument that …
It is well known among educational researchers that …

(Adapted from the Academic Phrasebank)

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

Book a writing consultation (OSSC)

How to Read Academic Articles

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 29 May 2024 15:39:33 +0000

How to Read Academic Articles ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 05/29/2024 - 11:39

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Literature reviews, Note-taking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of reading academic articles
Familiarize with the general structure of research articles
Read articles effectively for different course assignments

Introduction

Critical reading is an essential skill for academic success, enabling you to engage deeply with course materials and scholarly articles.

This resource page offers different strategies for critical academic reading depending on your reading purposes — whether for class discussions, selecting literature for an assignment, or delving into selected readings for your paper writing— to maximize your understanding and insight.

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

You are required to engage in academic reading for various purposes:

Classwork / Homework

Purpose: get the gist (i.e., main points) of assigned readings to prepare yourself for class (e.g., class discussions) or homework (e.g., online posts and discussions).

Select sources for an assignment

Purpose: decide if a source is a match for your assignment topic and goal by quickly reading it.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Purpose: Once you have found appropriate sources, you need to read them more in detail to find and use the points that are relevant to your topic, and include them in your assignment.

What are Research Articles?

Research articles are a very common genre you are required to read in your courses. There are three main types of articles you may engage with:

Empirical Articles

These articles report original research studies, usually with primary data and results from experiments.

Example: Trenholm, S., Alcock, L., & Robinson, C. (2015). An investigation of assessment and feedback practices in fully asynchronous online undergraduate mathematics courses. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 46(8), 1197–1221. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2015.1036946

Theoretical Articles

These articles usually contain and describe new theories, principles, and concepts related to a specific field of knowledge. They normally do not present empirical or experimental data.

Example: Yazan, B. (2018). A conceptual framework to understand language teacher identities. Journal of Second Language Teacher Education, 1(1), 21–48.

Review Articles

These articles summarize and analyze published work on a certain topic to 1) synthesize the previous research, 2) provide a critical overview of the previous research, 3) evaluate the state of research, and 4) suggest gaps in knowledge and future research directions.

Example: Lapkin, S., Mady, C., & Arnott, S. (2009). Research perspectives on core French: A literature review. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12 (2). Retrieved from https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/CJAL/article/view/19936

Empirical Articles

Empirical articles are perhaps the most common type of research articles you will read during your studies. They are also often called by different names, such as experimental reports and research reports. There are two important features of these articles that you should keep in mind when you read:

Predictable Structure. Empirical articles typically follow a structure called IMRD (Introduction – Methods – Results – Discussion)
Predictable Language. Empirical articles often employ standard vocabulary or phrases for certain purposes (e.g., to introduce the research objective and research questions).

Familiarizing with the structure and language of empirical articles will help you find the main points quickly and ultimately read more efficiently.

Below is the IMRD structure of a typical empirical article with the main sections:

Abstract

The summary of key information from the entire article.

Introduction

An introduction of an empirical article normally includes the following information:

Background information of the general topic
Relevance of topic
Rationale and purpose of the study
Literature review (which can often stand as a separate section)
Review of previous research on the topic
Gaps and unanswered questions
How the study addresses gaps or questions
Significance of the study
Research questions
Definition of key terms (which may sometimes be included in other sections or sub-sections, such as the literature review or conceptual framework)

Methods

This section describes the research methods employed. It often includes the following components:

Research design
Participants
Instruments used to collect data
Procedure for data collection and analysis

Results

This section reports the findings based on data analysis. The content in this section is often divided into various sub-sections.

Discussion & Conclusion

Authors summarize and interpret the research findings in this section. In some cases, you may see the Discussion and Conclusion separated into two sections. Normally, this section includes the following information:

Summary and interpretation of findings
Answers to the research questions
Limitations
Directions for future studies

References

This section lists all the sources cited in the article.

Example: Check the video below about annotating a journal article from minute 4.05

From: Excelsior OWL - https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-while-reading/annotating/annotating-a-journal-article/

How to Read Research Articles?

Here is a step-by-step process to read research articles effectively:

Preview
Read in a Specific Order
Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary
Active Reading & Questioning
Take Notes

1. Preview

Skim the Abstract, Intro, and Conclusion: Quickly read through the Abstract, Introduction, and Conclusion to grasp the main arguments and findings. This skimming practice allows you to identify the purpose of the text, the author's hypothesis, and the conclusions drawn, providing a framework for deeper understanding when you read in full.
Scan the whole text structure (titles, headings, sub-headings). Scanning helps you understand the main themes and organization of the document, allowing you to anticipate the kind of information that will be covered, and quickly find specific information (e.g., study aim, main results, etc.).
Note aids (e.g., tables, graphs, charts, bolded terms): These elements are designed to highlight key information and can serve as clues to important concepts and data within the text.

Skim

Purpose: to quickly get a general overview or main idea of a text without reading every word or detail.
Technique: When skimming, you glance over the text, focusing on headings, subheadings, specific sections, topic sentences, and keywords.
Use: Skimming is useful when previewing a text to determine its relevance or when trying to understand the main points of a lengthy passage quickly.

Scan

Purpose: to quickly locate specific information or details within a text.
Technique: When scanning, you move your eyes rapidly over the text, looking for particular words, phrases, or information that matches your specific search criteria. You do not read every word but instead focus on finding the target information.
Use: Scanning is helpful when searching for specific facts, names, dates, or keywords within a text, such as when looking up information in an index, table of contents, or search engine results.

2. Read in a Specific Order

While engaging in academic reading, we almost never read research articles from the beginning to the end like a book. Depending on your purposes, you should read the article sections in a specific order.

Classwork/Homework

If your reading goal is to get the gist (i.e., main points) of the article, this is the suggested reading order and the specific content you can expect to find in each section.

Note: your task type and instructions ultimately determine the reading order and focus. For example:

In a Research Methods class, tasks might require you to focus on the Methods and Results sections more than you would in other classes.
If the task is about leading a discussion on an article, you might need to focus on more sections and details than you would for an online post.

Select sources for an assignment

Abstract
(Conclusion)
(Discussion)

Note: if you have a clear idea of your assignment topic, reading the abstract might sometimes be enough at this stage.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Abstract
Introduction
Conclusion
Discussion
Results
Methods

Note: you might need to read some sections multiple times to find the points you need.

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

Being familiar with phrases and vocabulary commonly used in academic articles will help you quickly find the information you’re looking for (e.g., study aim, research questions, and findings).

Check below some commonly used vocabulary and phrases, along with examples, for different purposes:

Research Aim & Objectives

The aim of this work/study is to...
Our research/study aims at...
The main objective/purpose is to...
In this paper, we will investigate...

Problem Statement

This seems to be a problem in...
One issue with...is that...
An emerging challenge in this area is that...

Gaps in the Literature

There is limited research discussing...
Little is known about...
As far as we know, few studies have investigated...

Findings

We found that...
Our research indicated that...
Based on the analysis, it is clear that...

Interpretation/Discussion of Findings

The findings suggest that...
A reasonable explanation of this result is that...
It may imply that...

Limitations

Because of the lack of..., we did not/could not...
One limitation of this study is that...

For more vocabulary and phrases used in academic articles, please check our Resource Page on Signposting and the information on Academic Phrasebank and Useful phrases and sentences for academic papers.

4. Active Reading & Questioning

By asking questions, you create a more interactive reading experience that promotes critical thinking, encourages curiosity, and helps clarify areas of uncertainty or ambiguity.

Use your instructor’s prompts to guide your reading: Incorporate your instructor's prompts or questions to guide your reading process.
Ask questions: As you read, generate your own questions to explore the text's implications, context, and arguments.

Below are some guiding questions you can ask for different purposes:

Classwork/homework

Note: If there are specific questions/instructions, read them first and keep them in mind as you read the article!

How is this article relevant to course content?
What is the main argument?
What are some interesting points /ideas/quotes?
Do I agree with the main argument(s)?
What are the findings and their implications?
What points /issues / questions can I use for my task (e.g., class/online discussion)?

Select sources for an assignment

What is the author’s argument and what evidence is presented to support it?
What is the authors’ research question?
Is this article a good match for my topic, research question and arguments?
How might this article be used in my assignment?

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Does point X support my argument or is it in opposition to it?
Do I agree with the author’s findings and conclusion?
How will I use point X in my assignment? How can I connect it to the point I’m trying to make?
Where is the right place in my assignment to include point X from this article?

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

After reading a section, take a moment to paraphrase or summarize the key points in your own words. This practice not only reinforces your memory and comprehension of the material but also helps clarify the main ideas and how they connect to each other. This is especially helpful when you are reading for classroom discussions, in which you are often expected to have a comprehensive and deep understanding of the assigned reading.

Respond to what you read

Questions: Develop a habit of jotting down questions that arise as you read. This can include questions about the author's reasoning, the evidence provided, or their implications.

Comments or observations: Take notes on your thoughts, reactions, and observations while reading. This can be a reflection on how the text aligns or conflicts with your previous knowledge/experience, or critical comments about the strength of the arguments presented. This kind of response fosters a more active and personal connection to the reading material.

Save or export references and quotes

Use tools to digitally highlight, save, or export important quotes and references directly from the text. Keeping a collection of these key points can be invaluable for quick review, writing assignments, or future research, ensuring you have direct evidence and citations at your fingertips. You may also consider using citation management tools to help you manage the references. Refer to our Resource Page on How to Organize Literature and Citation management guide (University of Toronto) for details.

Notetaking Examples

Below are examples of how you can take notes about the same reading for different purposes:

Sample reading: Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06

Assigned reading for class or homework (e.g., presentation, discussion)

Purpose of reading: online discussion

Questions to discuss: What is your experience with assessment practices as a teacher or student in online or distance courses? How is your experience similar to or different from the findings?

What course topic is this reading connected with: assessment for online courses in higher education

Main argument(s) or main findings:

The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations.
The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students.
For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.

Points to raise in class: Experience with online biology courses

Similarity: the lack of interactive sessions made the general experience, including assessments, less engaging and connected with real life

Difference: the feedback on assessment is often quite prompt; knowing about what was not well understood immediately based on the results of each question (automatic grading system). However, there is often no rationale explained in detail, leading to unresolved confusion even after getting feedback.

Select sources for an assignment

My research focus: students’ perspectives and experiences with assessment practices in mathematics and statistics courses in the post-secondary education context.

Source	Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06
Research question or objective	What are the assessment practices and how are they related to the students learning of undergraduate mathematics in distance and online education?
Arguments & findings	1. The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations. 2. The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students. 3. For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.
Relevance to my research focus	Highly relevant, save for paper
Potential use in paper	Can be used to suggest 1) the challenging experiences students had with assessment practices in online math courses; 2) recommendations to improve assessment experiences in online math courses

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Note: The following should be built upon the notes for determining a source for a paper

Relevant quotes:

Negative student experience, inadequate prompt feedback

“The DLI participants indicated that the prompt feedback on their assessment is lacking, resulting in their expectations not being met. One of them commented that “There is no feedback from the tutors when we do assignment online, it is so frustrating.” (p. 101)

Implication for online math education, provide interactive components for student engagement

“To ensure quality and flexible assessment practices in ODL institutions in Nigeria, it is therefore vital to provide viable Internet connectivity, alongside regular and exact feedback to the learners. There is also a need for creation of strong practical and online interactive sessions that will interest and attract students learning mathematics through this mode.” (p. 101)

My observations:

Highly relevant to focus on students' perspectives on assessment for online math learning;
Lack of instructors' or policymakers' perspectives on the same issue, even though the implications point to teaching and government funding --> Need to find if there is any paper filling this gap
The results contradict Tatira (2022), which indicated a general student satisfactory experience with assessment practices in online mathematics courses

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