Learning strategies

How to Take Notes of Readings

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 13 Aug 2024 20:03:25 +0000

How to Take Notes of Readings ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 08/13/2024 - 16:03

Skills Categories:

Learning strategies

Skills Keywords:

Note-taking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the benefits of notetaking when reading materials
Learn four effective note-taking methods
Maximize the usefulness of notes for classes and assignments.

Introduction

Absorbing the content of academic texts, like book chapters or journal articles, can be challenging. Taking notes while engaging in academic reading can help you navigate through dense material, making your reading more efficient and effective. This Resource Page illustrates four methods for taking notes on academic readings, along with a concrete example to show you how to apply each method in practice.

To learn more about reading strategies, check How to Read Academic Articles.

Why Should You Take Notes?

Below are some benefits of notetaking when engaging in academic materials:

Improved comprehension: Notetaking helps in breaking down complex information, making it easier to understand and retain the material.
Enhanced focus: Actively taking notes keeps you engaged with the reading material, reducing distractions and promoting better concentration.
Better organization: Notes allow you to organize key points, arguments, and evidence in a structured manner, which is useful for study and review.
Effective review: Well-organized notes provide a quick reference for future study sessions, making it easier to review and recall important information.
Critical thinking: The process of summarizing and paraphrasing information in your own words encourages deeper analysis and critical thinking about the content.

Note-taking Strategies

In the following sections, we'll use an academic article as an example to demonstrate how you can organize text content using various note-taking methods.

Below is the example we will use:

Tatira, B. (2022). Remote Online Education in Undergraduate Mathematics: Students’ Perspectives. E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (EHASS), 15(1). https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.2022sp3116

Method 1: Cornell Notes System

The Cornell Notes system divides your notes into 3 sections: Notes, Cue Column, and Summary.

The Notes section is on the right side of the page, where you jot down important information about readings.
The Cue Column is on the left side and is for keywords, questions, or concepts that relate to the notes.
At the bottom of the page, the Summary section allows for a concise recap of the main ideas from the Notes section.

Example:

Cornell Note-taking method (student sample) (61.6 KB, PDF)

This sample shows a student’s notes of an academic article using the Cornell system.

You can find more information about the Cornell method and practice notetaking with it here: https://h5p.org/cornell-notes

Method 2: Outlining

The Outline method organizes information by using headings and indentations. In general, it looks as follows:

Heading: identify the important topic and organize the key ideas

Sub-heading: break down to subordinate ideas
Point: capture the key information using bullet points
Sub-point: capture more specific ideas related to Point above
Sub-point:

Example:

Outlining Note-taking method (student sample) (83.69 KB, PDF)

This sample shows a student’s notes of an academic article using the outline method.

Method 3: Mind Mapping

Mind mapping is a visual note-taking strategy that organizes information around a central concept, using branches to connect ideas and themes. To organize your map, you can use:

Different colors
Symbols
Arrows/Connectors

Below is an example of using the mind mapping method to summarize the impact of technology on student mathematics learning based on the sample reading.

Mind Map Note-taking method (student sample) (179.66 KB, PDF)

For users with accessibility needs: this sample shows a student’s notes of an academic article using the mindmap method.

Method 4: Charting

Charting is a visual tool to organize ideas within a table. It is particularly useful for comparing multiple concepts within a structure.

Below is an example of converting the impact of technology on students’ mathematics learning information into a chart based on the sample reading:

Impact of Technology on Students' Mathematics Learning Experiences

Positive Impact	Negative Impact
Enhanced Accessibility Remote access to lectures and materials Convenience of learning from home Recorded lectures for review Flexible Learning Self-paced learning opportunities Ability to revisit difficult concepts Improved Assessment Timed and objective assessments Instant feedback on quizzes and assignments Increased Engagement Use of multimedia tools for better understanding Interactive learning platforms	Technical Issues Network connectivity problems Dependence on reliable internet access Assessment Challenges Increased opportunities for cheating Difficulty in ensuring academic integrity Learning Difficulties Challenges with complex subjects like mathematics Difficulty in writing equations and drawing diagrams online Limited Resources Inadequate access to digital devices for some students Lack of familiarity with digital tools and platforms

Positive Impact

Negative Impact

Enhanced Accessibility

Remote access to lectures and materials
Convenience of learning from home
Recorded lectures for review

Flexible Learning

Self-paced learning opportunities
Ability to revisit difficult concepts

Improved Assessment

Timed and objective assessments
Instant feedback on quizzes and assignments

Increased Engagement

Use of multimedia tools for better understanding
Interactive learning platforms

Technical Issues

Network connectivity problems
Dependence on reliable internet access

Assessment Challenges

Increased opportunities for cheating
Difficulty in ensuring academic integrity

Learning Difficulties

Challenges with complex subjects like mathematics
Difficulty in writing equations and drawing diagrams online

Limited Resources

Inadequate access to digital devices for some students
Lack of familiarity with digital tools and platforms

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Notetaking Strategies

Advantages

Cornell

Organized structure: The Cornell system provides a clear layout with sections for notes, cues, and summaries, making it easy to find and review key information..

Enhanced retention and review: The structure active engagement and helps reinforce learning through summaries and cue columns.

Outlining

Clear hierarchical structure: It organizes information in a logical, hierarchical format, making it easy to see the relationships between main topics, subtopics, and details.

Efficient review: It simplifies the review process by breaking down complex information into manageable sections, aiding quick recall of key points.

Mind Mapping

Visual organization: It visualizes information in an easily understandable format, which is of great benefit for visual learners.

Systematic connection and relationships: It allows for systematic connections, relationships, and comparisons among information and ideas.

Charting

Clear comparison: Charts allow for easy comparison of different pieces of information, making it straightforward to see contrasts and similarities.

Efficient data presentation: Information is presented in a structured and concise format, which can enhance understanding and retention, especially for numerical or categorical data.

Disadvantages

Cornell

Time-consuming: It requires extra time to set up the format and write summaries, which can be impractical during fast-paced lectures.

Initial learning curve: It may be challenging to adapt to initially, potentially reducing note-taking efficiency until familiar with the system.

Outlining

Oversimplification: There is a risk of over-simplifying complex topics and it’s easy to omit connections between ideas.

Rigid structure: The method’s structured format may not be suitable for all types of content, particularly if the information is non-linear or less structured.

Mind Mapping

Complexity: Can become cluttered and difficult to read if too many details are added, reducing its effectiveness.

Time-consuming: Requires more time to create compared to linear notetaking methods, which may be impractical during fast-paced lectures or discussions.

Charting

Limited detail: Charts can oversimplify complex information, leaving out important details that may be necessary for a deeper understanding.

Requires prior knowledge: Creating effective charts often requires a good understanding of the content beforehand, which can be challenging if you are learning the material for the first time during a lecture or reading.

Our Tips

Take notes based on the prompts or questions provided by instructors, as this ensures you focus on the most important and relevant information for your class or assignments.
When taking notes, paraphrase the content instead of copying it. This enhances your understanding and retention of the material.
Ask for help when you need it. For example, you can ask your classmates to share their notes to fill gaps in missed content; you can also consult peer mentors or learning strategists about enhancing notetaking strategies.

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Take Notes in Class

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 13 Aug 2024 16:15:12 +0000

How to Take Notes in Class ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 08/13/2024 - 12:15

Skills Categories:

Learning strategies

Skills Keywords:

Note-taking

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the benefits of notetaking in class
Take effective notes in class
Maximize the usefulness of notes for classes and assignments

Why Should We Use Note-taking Strategies?

While attending classes, many students take too many notes line by line without prioritizing the content. This method is not very effective: not every word the professor says should be written down, and you may find it impossible to follow every single sentence in a three-hour class. Also, when you want to review your notes after class, you might find it difficult to capture the important parts and might get frustrated.

Using note-taking strategies during classes can help us focus and keep our brains active, and ultimately organize our notes and ideas more effectively for our studies.

To learn more about note-taking strategies when reading materials, check our Resource Page How to take Notes of Readings.

How to Take Effective Notes in Class/While Listening?

Focus on listening:

Make sure that listening is the priority and that your notetaking is not interfering with your comprehension. You don’t need to take too many notes, nor strive for ‘perfect’ notes – you can’t capture everything.
When you listen to others, focus on transition words/phrases to help you follow the structure of the talk and to structure your notes.
Focus on what you CAN understand rather than on unfamiliar words. If new, technical terms are mentioned, jot them down and check their meaning after class.

Organization of in-class notes:

Format your notes with clear labels and different colors.
Organize your notes with bullet points, headings and sub-headings as you follow the structure of the talk.
Make abbreviations in your notes if it helps you save time – but make sure that you can recall their meanings after class. Examples: “edu” for “education”, “ppl” for “people”.
Your notes should primarily focus on key words/nouns rather than adjectives, verbs, etc.

Example:

Note-taking in class (student sample) (62.71 KB, PDF)

This sample shows a student’s notes during a lecture about the topic “Assessments in online mathematics courses in the post-secondary context”.

How to Make the Most of your Notes after Class

After-class Review

Consolidate and organize your notes while the class content is still fresh in your mind. You can

fill in the points that you did not have time to write down during the class
expand the abbreviations to the full words or expressions
check new concepts or vocabulary

Deep Review

Notetaking in grad school is normally not for memorization (as it often is in undergrad) but rather for future use in your assignments and for building knowledge and expertise. The more you review, the more likely you can turn the course content into knowledge. As a result, you’ll have richer ideas in your assignments.

Methods for a deeper review:

Transfer your written notes into digital form (or vice versa) and add reflections and questions
Ask yourself questions related to class content to check and fill the gaps in your class notes
Summarize your notes in a different way (e.g., if you use the Cornell method in your class notes, try to use the mind map when you revise them.)

Below is the expanded version of the example notes shown above:

Note-taking in class (student sample - expanded version) (67.21 KB, PDF)

This sample shows how a student reviewed, consolidated and organized their notes after class. These notes refer to a lecture about the topic “Assessments in online mathematics courses in the post-secondary context”.

Handwritten vs Digital Notes

Refer to the table below to explore the advantages, disadvantages, and scenarios of use for handwritten and digital notes.

	Handwritten Notes	Digital Notes
Advantages	Enhances memory retention through physical writing.	Efficient, allows for faster notetaking. Easy to organize, edit, and search notes.
Disadvantages	Slower, may miss some details. Harder to organize and edit later.	Potential distractions from other apps.
Scenario of Use	During class: quickly note down other people’s ideas and your immediate reflections. After class: revise handwritten notes, transfer or scan them into a digital format, and organize them accordingly.	During class: jot down the notes of fast-paced classes where detailed notes are essential. After class: revise your notes, add suitable content from the instructor’s slides and peers’ ideas from the discussion board or classroom discussion.

Handwritten Notes

Digital Notes

Advantages

Enhances memory retention through physical writing.

Efficient, allows for faster notetaking.

Easy to organize, edit, and search notes.

Disadvantages

Slower, may miss some details.

Harder to organize and edit later.

Potential distractions from other apps.

Scenario of Use

During class: quickly note down other people’s ideas and your immediate reflections.

After class: revise handwritten notes, transfer or scan them into a digital format, and organize them accordingly.

During class: jot down the notes of fast-paced classes where detailed notes are essential.

After class: revise your notes, add suitable content from the instructor’s slides and peers’ ideas from the discussion board or classroom discussion.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

Note-taking Resources | Robert Gillespie Academic Skills Centre (utoronto.ca)

On Campus Services

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 02 Jul 2024 20:41:03 +0000

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 07/02/2024 - 16:41

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand what critical thinking is and why it is important for your academic studies
Learn how to apply critical thinking in academic reading, discussions and writing.

Introduction

Critical thinking is an essential skill for academic success and professional growth, particularly in graduate school where advanced analytical abilities are required. This Resource Page introduces what critical thinking is, explains the importance of critical thinking for graduate students, and offers practical guidelines to enhance this skill. By mastering critical thinking, you can navigate complex academic challenges and contribute meaningfully to your fields of study.

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating our and others’ thinking with a view to improving it. Critical thinking means:

Stepping back from immediate personal feelings
Understanding why other people see something differently
Checking the accuracy of information
Checking the logic of an argument

Looking for possible flaws, assumptions, and biases in an argument
Checking statistics and other empirical data for accuracy and validity
Examining data from different angles
Reaching informed conclusions

Many students find ‘being critical’ difficult because of:

Respect for the authority of ‘experts’
For instance, you might accept a renowned professor's theory on educational methods without question, believing the professor's expertise makes their perspective infallible. Even if you have valid doubts or conflicting evidence, your respect for the professor's authority may prevent you from critically analyzing or challenging their theory.
Lack of confidence in your own judgement
For instance, you might avoid critiquing a well-established research paper in a seminar because you doubt your own analytical skills compared to your more experienced peers. Even though you have identified potential flaws or alternative interpretations, your lack of confidence in your judgment prevents you from speaking up, missing a chance to contribute to the academic discussion.
Personal biases
For instance, if you are researching the effects of technology in education, you might focus only on studies that support your belief that technology improves learning, ignoring research that highlights potential drawbacks. This personal bias prevents you from critically evaluating all the evidence, leading to a skewed (i.e., not accurate or exact) understanding of the topic and potentially flawed conclusions.
Intellectual difficulty (i.e., it's too hard)

Why is Critical Thinking Important for your Academic Studies?

You must develop critical thinking skills to

understand topics and concepts more deeply, digging below the surface
engage in critical conversations about topics
apply learned theories and develop arguments to support your claims.

You often need to apply critical thinking skills in various course activities, such as:

Seminars (e.g., in-class discussions)
Presentations
Writing (e.g., online posts, critical reflective writing, positioning paper writing, proposal writing, research papers, etc.)
Other projects and assignments (e.g., curriculum or lesson design)

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Reading?

Here are common strategies that can help you apply critical thinking when reading:

Focus on the instructor’s prompts (if provided)
Make a list of questions to guide your reading and ask questions as you read
Make connections to what you already know or have read
Think how the ideas apply to you, your field, or existing issues

Don’t take information at face value (i.e., don’t “accept” or agree with the information you’re reading simply because it was written by a scholar or because your instructor asked you to read it)
Take a stance while you read (i.e., don’t just stop at understanding the information, but form an opinion or idea about what you’re reading)
Take notes of observations and references to other readings or concepts

Here is a list of guiding questions that you should ask yourself when reading:

Interpret

What does this mean?
What is the best way to categorize or classify this information?
Is it the main argument of the author(s), the evidence used by the author(s) to support their claims?
Is it one of the research findings, or the implications of the author(s)?
In this context, what was intended?
Why might this be a problem or challenge?

Analyze

What claim or conclusion did the author(s) make?
What are the reasons or arguments behind this claim?
What are the pros and cons of this?
What are the differences and similarities between x and y?
What are the differences and similarities in research findings between this article and others?
What are the differences and similarities in research design between this study and others?
What are the differences and similarities in proposal 1 and proposal 2 raised in this article?
What are possible alternatives to the solutions proposed?

Evaluate

How credible is this claim?
How strong are these arguments or evidence?
Do I have all the necessary facts?
What is my position on this statement?

Connect

How does this relate to what I know, other claims, or other practices?
How is this relevant to me, this field, research, or practice?

Infer & Apply

Based on what I know so far, what conclusions can I draw?
What are the implications of this claim, evidence, or finding?
What are possible solutions to this issue?

To learn more about critical reading and see some examples, check our Resource Page on How to Read Academic Articles.

How to apply Critical Thinking in Discussions?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Collaborative Work?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Writing?

Critical thinking is paramount to academic writing, as it enables you and other scholars to construct well-reasoned, coherent, and compelling arguments.

Critical writing involves not just presenting information, but also evaluating, analyzing, and synthesizing different sources to offer a balanced and insightful perspective. It requires questioning assumptions, identifying biases, and considering alternative viewpoints to strengthen the credibility and depth of the analysis. By applying critical thinking in academic writing, you can produce rigorous and original work that advances knowledge and fosters scholarly dialogue.

You are writing critically when you...

Make connections and comparisons among studies

Example:

Much of the research on written corrective feedback (WCF) has revolved around investigations into the effectiveness of focused WCF, with mounting evidence providing support for this type of feedback in producing accuracy gains (Van Beuningen, 2010). For example, Bitchener and Knock’s (2009) 10-month study into the effects of focused WCF on a targeted linguistic category using direct and metalinguistic feedback found a positive effect on grammatical accuracy that endured over time. Some research studies have examined the effectiveness of unfocused WCF or compared focused to unfocused WCF. In their study investigating the differential effects of focused versus unfocused WCF, Sheen, Wright, and Moldawa (2009) were able to show that while both types of error correction produced significant improvements in accuracy of articles, because the CMC AND WCF 5 unfocused WCF did not outperform the control group, the researchers were unable to demonstrate the benefits of providing unfocused over focused corrective feedback. Other studies have explored direct WCF compared with indirect WCF, although these results are somewhat inconclusive. Some researchers claim an advantage to direct WCF, particularly with regards to continued long-term effects on the acquisition of simple linguistic forms (Van Beuningen, de Jong & Kuiken, 2008; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009) while other researchers (Frear & Chiu, 2015) point to improvements in accuracy as a result of indirect WCF. Ferris (2010) suggests both direct and indirect feedback can deliver complementary results since both have the potential to induce L2 writers to become aware of and notice a mismatch between their own written production and target-like norms.

Feedback: The passage makes connections and comparisons among studies on written corrective feedback (WCF). It highlights that focused WCF has been shown to improve accuracy over time, as evidenced by Bitchener and Knock’s (2009) study. It contrasts these findings with research on unfocused WCF, such as the study by Sheen, Wright, and Moldawa (2009). Additionally, it compares direct and indirect WCF, noting that some studies (e.g., Van Beuningen et al., 2008; Bitchener & Knoch, 2009) support the effectiveness of direct WCF for simple linguistic forms, while others (e.g., Frear & Chiu, 2015) highlight the benefits of indirect WCF. Ferris (2010) further suggests that both types of feedback can complement each other.

Integrate your reflections and experiences

Example:

Both Strange & Hardy-Cox (2016) and Sabri (2011) demonstrated how “the student experience” has transformed into a broad categorical term that has translated into a policy framework that homogenizes and erases the experiences of marginalized students. Due to this transformation, I understand the concept of “student experience” has become inadequate for orientating and navigating the student experience when used without third-wave theories of student development (Strange & Hardy-Cox, 2016). This is emphasized by the shift in how students have become viewed as consumers and as a result, shifted how institutions approach student consultations (Sabri, 2011). While this shift in understanding has assisted institutions in addressing the diverse needs of students, the homogenization of our understanding of “student experience” remains an issue. For example, UK higher education institutions and their preference to use the experiences of privileged students within the quality assurance process – this raises the question of whose voices are valued and understood when we speak about student experiences (Strange & Cox, 2016; Sabri, 2011).
When thinking of my experiences as a student union leader, advocacy was a key component of my role. To achieve this, ensuring intersectionality and the centering of marginalized communities was utilized in various areas of decision-making. While this may have created tensions with certain groups, the benefits of using an intersectional framework were clear – as most, if not all, campaigns that aim to improve the student experience from the perspective of access and equity aim to address the barriers that prevent marginalized students from navigating the higher education landscape to what we understand as the traditional university student (i.e., white, cis, male, able-bodied).

Feedback: The student reflects on the concept of "student experience" as presented in the literature by contrasting it with their own experiences as a student. Their reflection then presents an anecdotal evidence supporting the authors' arguments for a need to acknowledge how different the experience of marginalized students' is in higher education.

Identify limitations in the literature & point out potential directions for future research

Example:

Critique example: Patel's (2022) study on using AI for personalized language learning highlights the technology's potential to tailor educational content to individual needs. However, it overlooks the critical socio-emotional components of learning, focusing solely on algorithmic customization without considering the motivational benefits of human interaction. This gap points to a need for future research to explore how AI can not only adapt to learners' cognitive profiles but also enhance emotional and social engagement. For example, scholars (e.g., James, 2023) have been experimenting with AI-empowered platforms to promote community and peer interaction as a potential solution to support both intellectual and emotional learning in ESL classrooms.

Feedback: In this example the author indicates the limitations of Patel’s study – which only focused on one element of AI for education – and then suggests directions for future research in the field.

Share potential solutions to an issue

Example:

We, the authors, recommend that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation, development, and implementation constantly reflect on how teacher candidates are constructing their understanding of teaching and theory–practice relationships. Enabling teacher candidates to establish a sound foundation to start their teaching careers is one of the broad goals of teacher preparation. More research is needed to understand the context of teacher preparation and how programs and individual faculty can offer appropriate, coherent learning experiences that shift away from the traditional divide between theory and practice. While a considerable body of literature about theory and practice in teacher education exists, theory–practice dynamics continue to be a challenge in terms of how teacher educators can best support teacher candidates as they develop their own understanding of theory–practice relationships in the context of learning to teach. This case study research adds to the knowledge base of teacher education, providing insight into the nature of faculty and teacher candidates’ thinking about theory– practice relationships and how this may shape practice. It also provides insight into some of the tensions and challenges faculties of education may experience as they implement new programs and/or practices that explicitly attend to creating strong theory–practice relationships.

From: Goodnough, K., Falkenberg, T., & MacDonald, R. (2016). Examining the nature of theory–practice relationships in initial teacher education: A Canadian case study. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 39(1), 1-28.

Feedback: The passage recommends that teacher educators and those involved in teacher preparation should continually reflect on how teacher candidates understand teaching and the relationship between theory and practice. It suggests that programs and faculty should provide coherent learning experiences that bridge the traditional divide between theory and practice. Additionally, it highlights the need for more research to offer insights into effective teacher education practices and the challenges faced by faculties in implementing new programs that strengthen theory–practice relationships.

Descriptive vs Critical Writing

Check the table below for the differences between descriptive and critical writing:

Descriptive writing	Critical writing
States what happened	Identifies the significance of what happened
States what something is like	Evaluates the strengths and weakness of something
Gives the story so far	Analyses how the story so far impacts on the current state of the focused issue or stakeholders involved
Says how to do something	Analyses why things are done a certain way
Explains what a theory says	Shows why a theory is relevant. Identifies the strengths and weaknesses of a theory in practice.
Explains how something works	Indicates why something will work
Notes the method used	Identifies whether a method was suitable or appropriate
Says when something occurred	Identifies why the timing is of importance
Identifies the different components of something	Weighs the importance of component parts
States options	Gives reasons for selecting each option
Lists details	Evaluates the relative significance of details
Lists in any order	Structures information in a specific order (e.g., importance, time, themes etc.)
States links between items	Shows the relevance of links between pieces of information
Gives evidence	Argues a case according to the evidence
Provides information for comparison	Makes a reasoned judgement and comparison on provided information
Gives information	Draws conclusions

Example of descriptive writing

Example:

Brown (2020) examines how mobile apps facilitate language learning, showing significant improvement in vocabulary acquisition among learners. Garcia et al. (2021) explore the role of virtual reality (VR) environments in enhancing language comprehension and cultural immersion. Zhang (2019) analyzes the effectiveness of online forums in encouraging language practice and interaction outside the classroom. Meanwhile, Patel (2022) discusses the use of artificial intelligence in personalizing language learning experiences, adjusting to individual learner's strengths and weaknesses.

Feedback: The example above is merely a summary of different research studies, without presenting any clear connection or comparison among studies, or the author’s stance.

Example of critical writing

Example:

The integration of technology into language education, as explored by recent research, offers a multifaceted view on enhancing learning outcomes. Brown (2020) highlights the role of mobile apps in vocabulary acquisition, suggesting technology's effectiveness in providing accessible learning tools. This notion of accessibility is complemented by Garcia et al. (2021), who delve into virtual reality (VR) environments, illustrating technology's capacity not only for language comprehension but for immersive cultural experiences as well, thereby broadening the scope of language learning beyond traditional methods. Zhang (2019) extends this discussion to online forums, which fostered community and interaction among learners, emphasizing the social aspect of language acquisition. On the other hand, Patel (2022) introduces a personalized approach through artificial intelligence, indicating a shift towards adaptive learning technologies that cater to individual needs. Collectively, these studies underscore a trend towards interactive and personalized learning experiences in language education, facilitated by technological advancements.

Feedback: In this example the author made connections among studies and supported their own claims with evidence from the existing literature.

Tips:

Both description AND criticality are needed in academic writing. You need to find a balance to present and analyze data.
Be curious, skeptical, and as objective as you can!

To learn more about how to write critically, check How to Integrate Others’ Research into your Writing and What are Stance & Voice and How to Apply them in Academic Writing.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

Book a writing consultation (OSSC)

How to Read Academic Articles

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 29 May 2024 15:39:33 +0000

How to Read Academic Articles ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 05/29/2024 - 11:39

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Literature reviews, Note-taking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of reading academic articles
Familiarize with the general structure of research articles
Read articles effectively for different course assignments

Introduction

Critical reading is an essential skill for academic success, enabling you to engage deeply with course materials and scholarly articles.

This resource page offers different strategies for critical academic reading depending on your reading purposes — whether for class discussions, selecting literature for an assignment, or delving into selected readings for your paper writing— to maximize your understanding and insight.

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

You are required to engage in academic reading for various purposes:

Classwork / Homework

Purpose: get the gist (i.e., main points) of assigned readings to prepare yourself for class (e.g., class discussions) or homework (e.g., online posts and discussions).

Select sources for an assignment

Purpose: decide if a source is a match for your assignment topic and goal by quickly reading it.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Purpose: Once you have found appropriate sources, you need to read them more in detail to find and use the points that are relevant to your topic, and include them in your assignment.

What are Research Articles?

Research articles are a very common genre you are required to read in your courses. There are three main types of articles you may engage with:

Empirical Articles

These articles report original research studies, usually with primary data and results from experiments.

Example: Trenholm, S., Alcock, L., & Robinson, C. (2015). An investigation of assessment and feedback practices in fully asynchronous online undergraduate mathematics courses. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 46(8), 1197–1221. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2015.1036946

Theoretical Articles

These articles usually contain and describe new theories, principles, and concepts related to a specific field of knowledge. They normally do not present empirical or experimental data.

Example: Yazan, B. (2018). A conceptual framework to understand language teacher identities. Journal of Second Language Teacher Education, 1(1), 21–48.

Review Articles

These articles summarize and analyze published work on a certain topic to 1) synthesize the previous research, 2) provide a critical overview of the previous research, 3) evaluate the state of research, and 4) suggest gaps in knowledge and future research directions.

Example: Lapkin, S., Mady, C., & Arnott, S. (2009). Research perspectives on core French: A literature review. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12 (2). Retrieved from https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/CJAL/article/view/19936

Empirical Articles

Empirical articles are perhaps the most common type of research articles you will read during your studies. They are also often called by different names, such as experimental reports and research reports. There are two important features of these articles that you should keep in mind when you read:

Predictable Structure. Empirical articles typically follow a structure called IMRD (Introduction – Methods – Results – Discussion)
Predictable Language. Empirical articles often employ standard vocabulary or phrases for certain purposes (e.g., to introduce the research objective and research questions).

Familiarizing with the structure and language of empirical articles will help you find the main points quickly and ultimately read more efficiently.

Below is the IMRD structure of a typical empirical article with the main sections:

Abstract

The summary of key information from the entire article.

Introduction

An introduction of an empirical article normally includes the following information:

Background information of the general topic
Relevance of topic
Rationale and purpose of the study
Literature review (which can often stand as a separate section)
Review of previous research on the topic
Gaps and unanswered questions
How the study addresses gaps or questions
Significance of the study
Research questions
Definition of key terms (which may sometimes be included in other sections or sub-sections, such as the literature review or conceptual framework)

Methods

This section describes the research methods employed. It often includes the following components:

Research design
Participants
Instruments used to collect data
Procedure for data collection and analysis

Results

This section reports the findings based on data analysis. The content in this section is often divided into various sub-sections.

Discussion & Conclusion

Authors summarize and interpret the research findings in this section. In some cases, you may see the Discussion and Conclusion separated into two sections. Normally, this section includes the following information:

Summary and interpretation of findings
Answers to the research questions
Limitations
Directions for future studies

References

This section lists all the sources cited in the article.

Example: Check the video below about annotating a journal article from minute 4.05

From: Excelsior OWL - https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-while-reading/annotating/annotating-a-journal-article/

How to Read Research Articles?

Here is a step-by-step process to read research articles effectively:

Preview
Read in a Specific Order
Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary
Active Reading & Questioning
Take Notes

1. Preview

Skim the Abstract, Intro, and Conclusion: Quickly read through the Abstract, Introduction, and Conclusion to grasp the main arguments and findings. This skimming practice allows you to identify the purpose of the text, the author's hypothesis, and the conclusions drawn, providing a framework for deeper understanding when you read in full.
Scan the whole text structure (titles, headings, sub-headings). Scanning helps you understand the main themes and organization of the document, allowing you to anticipate the kind of information that will be covered, and quickly find specific information (e.g., study aim, main results, etc.).
Note aids (e.g., tables, graphs, charts, bolded terms): These elements are designed to highlight key information and can serve as clues to important concepts and data within the text.

Skim

Purpose: to quickly get a general overview or main idea of a text without reading every word or detail.
Technique: When skimming, you glance over the text, focusing on headings, subheadings, specific sections, topic sentences, and keywords.
Use: Skimming is useful when previewing a text to determine its relevance or when trying to understand the main points of a lengthy passage quickly.

Scan

Purpose: to quickly locate specific information or details within a text.
Technique: When scanning, you move your eyes rapidly over the text, looking for particular words, phrases, or information that matches your specific search criteria. You do not read every word but instead focus on finding the target information.
Use: Scanning is helpful when searching for specific facts, names, dates, or keywords within a text, such as when looking up information in an index, table of contents, or search engine results.

2. Read in a Specific Order

While engaging in academic reading, we almost never read research articles from the beginning to the end like a book. Depending on your purposes, you should read the article sections in a specific order.

Classwork/Homework

If your reading goal is to get the gist (i.e., main points) of the article, this is the suggested reading order and the specific content you can expect to find in each section.

Note: your task type and instructions ultimately determine the reading order and focus. For example:

In a Research Methods class, tasks might require you to focus on the Methods and Results sections more than you would in other classes.
If the task is about leading a discussion on an article, you might need to focus on more sections and details than you would for an online post.

Select sources for an assignment

Abstract
(Conclusion)
(Discussion)

Note: if you have a clear idea of your assignment topic, reading the abstract might sometimes be enough at this stage.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Abstract
Introduction
Conclusion
Discussion
Results
Methods

Note: you might need to read some sections multiple times to find the points you need.

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

Being familiar with phrases and vocabulary commonly used in academic articles will help you quickly find the information you’re looking for (e.g., study aim, research questions, and findings).

Check below some commonly used vocabulary and phrases, along with examples, for different purposes:

Research Aim & Objectives

The aim of this work/study is to...
Our research/study aims at...
The main objective/purpose is to...
In this paper, we will investigate...

Problem Statement

This seems to be a problem in...
One issue with...is that...
An emerging challenge in this area is that...

Gaps in the Literature

There is limited research discussing...
Little is known about...
As far as we know, few studies have investigated...

Findings

We found that...
Our research indicated that...
Based on the analysis, it is clear that...

Interpretation/Discussion of Findings

The findings suggest that...
A reasonable explanation of this result is that...
It may imply that...

Limitations

Because of the lack of..., we did not/could not...
One limitation of this study is that...

For more vocabulary and phrases used in academic articles, please check our Resource Page on Signposting and the information on Academic Phrasebank and Useful phrases and sentences for academic papers.

4. Active Reading & Questioning

By asking questions, you create a more interactive reading experience that promotes critical thinking, encourages curiosity, and helps clarify areas of uncertainty or ambiguity.

Use your instructor’s prompts to guide your reading: Incorporate your instructor's prompts or questions to guide your reading process.
Ask questions: As you read, generate your own questions to explore the text's implications, context, and arguments.

Below are some guiding questions you can ask for different purposes:

Classwork/homework

Note: If there are specific questions/instructions, read them first and keep them in mind as you read the article!

How is this article relevant to course content?
What is the main argument?
What are some interesting points /ideas/quotes?
Do I agree with the main argument(s)?
What are the findings and their implications?
What points /issues / questions can I use for my task (e.g., class/online discussion)?

Select sources for an assignment

What is the author’s argument and what evidence is presented to support it?
What is the authors’ research question?
Is this article a good match for my topic, research question and arguments?
How might this article be used in my assignment?

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Does point X support my argument or is it in opposition to it?
Do I agree with the author’s findings and conclusion?
How will I use point X in my assignment? How can I connect it to the point I’m trying to make?
Where is the right place in my assignment to include point X from this article?

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

After reading a section, take a moment to paraphrase or summarize the key points in your own words. This practice not only reinforces your memory and comprehension of the material but also helps clarify the main ideas and how they connect to each other. This is especially helpful when you are reading for classroom discussions, in which you are often expected to have a comprehensive and deep understanding of the assigned reading.

Respond to what you read

Questions: Develop a habit of jotting down questions that arise as you read. This can include questions about the author's reasoning, the evidence provided, or their implications.

Comments or observations: Take notes on your thoughts, reactions, and observations while reading. This can be a reflection on how the text aligns or conflicts with your previous knowledge/experience, or critical comments about the strength of the arguments presented. This kind of response fosters a more active and personal connection to the reading material.

Save or export references and quotes

Use tools to digitally highlight, save, or export important quotes and references directly from the text. Keeping a collection of these key points can be invaluable for quick review, writing assignments, or future research, ensuring you have direct evidence and citations at your fingertips. You may also consider using citation management tools to help you manage the references. Refer to our Resource Page on How to Organize Literature and Citation management guide (University of Toronto) for details.

Notetaking Examples

Below are examples of how you can take notes about the same reading for different purposes:

Sample reading: Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06

Assigned reading for class or homework (e.g., presentation, discussion)

Purpose of reading: online discussion

Questions to discuss: What is your experience with assessment practices as a teacher or student in online or distance courses? How is your experience similar to or different from the findings?

What course topic is this reading connected with: assessment for online courses in higher education

Main argument(s) or main findings:

The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations.
The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students.
For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.

Points to raise in class: Experience with online biology courses

Similarity: the lack of interactive sessions made the general experience, including assessments, less engaging and connected with real life

Difference: the feedback on assessment is often quite prompt; knowing about what was not well understood immediately based on the results of each question (automatic grading system). However, there is often no rationale explained in detail, leading to unresolved confusion even after getting feedback.

Select sources for an assignment

My research focus: students’ perspectives and experiences with assessment practices in mathematics and statistics courses in the post-secondary education context.

Source	Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06
Research question or objective	What are the assessment practices and how are they related to the students learning of undergraduate mathematics in distance and online education?
Arguments & findings	1. The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations. 2. The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students. 3. For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.
Relevance to my research focus	Highly relevant, save for paper
Potential use in paper	Can be used to suggest 1) the challenging experiences students had with assessment practices in online math courses; 2) recommendations to improve assessment experiences in online math courses

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Note: The following should be built upon the notes for determining a source for a paper

Relevant quotes:

Negative student experience, inadequate prompt feedback

“The DLI participants indicated that the prompt feedback on their assessment is lacking, resulting in their expectations not being met. One of them commented that “There is no feedback from the tutors when we do assignment online, it is so frustrating.” (p. 101)

Implication for online math education, provide interactive components for student engagement

“To ensure quality and flexible assessment practices in ODL institutions in Nigeria, it is therefore vital to provide viable Internet connectivity, alongside regular and exact feedback to the learners. There is also a need for creation of strong practical and online interactive sessions that will interest and attract students learning mathematics through this mode.” (p. 101)

My observations:

Highly relevant to focus on students' perspectives on assessment for online math learning;
Lack of instructors' or policymakers' perspectives on the same issue, even though the implications point to teaching and government funding --> Need to find if there is any paper filling this gap
The results contradict Tatira (2022), which indicated a general student satisfactory experience with assessment practices in online mathematics courses

For more information about notetaking, check our Resource Page on How to Take Notes of Readings.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

Academic Phrasebank | The University of Manchester

On Campus Services

How to Understand & Plan Assignments

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 02 Apr 2024 22:19:46 +0000

How to Understand & Plan Assignments ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 04/02/2024 - 18:19

Skills Categories:

Learning strategies

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Literature reviews, Proposals, Time management

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of assignments at OISE and how assignments support your learning
Navigate the process of understanding assignment instructions
Learn strategies for making plans for your assignments

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 1, part 1, understanding and planning the assignment.

Purposes of Assignments

You may ask: “Why are assignments so common at OISE instead of exams? Why do most OISE instructors use assignments to grade students?”

Assignments reflect the advanced nature of graduate studies, as shown in the three boxes below.

Active and Deep Learning

Assignments call for a higher level of thinking and deeper understanding of a topic. Assignments require and enable you to

think deeply and critically about the material
question and apply complex concepts, rather than just absorbing information
use what you learn in creative and original ways
find information and sources that support your ideas

Independent Learning

Assignments are projects that you initiate. Since it’s your project, you can (and should!) see assignments as opportunities to

explore topics and issues that are interesting and relevant to you (e.g., for professional, academic, or personal purposes)
manage your own time and balance your studies and life.

Develop Academic Skills

Assignments are not just assessment tools or products. Each assignment is a process. As you go through the assignment preparation phases, you practice and improve your academic skills, such as:

Research skills
Critical Thinking
Reading Skills
Academic communication skills (e.g., writing and presenting orally)

Understand Assignment Instructions

Step 1: Read the instructions

Read the assignment instructions thoroughly as soon as you receive them. Take notes of important information and possible questions.

Step 2: Determine the assignment type & purpose

Type

Do you need to produce an annotated bibliography, a reflection, a literature review, a presentation, etc.?
Do you know the structure of that specific assignment type?
If you are unclear (e.g., you don’t know what sections a literature review should include), start by familiarizing yourself with the features of the assignment type in question.

Purpose

What do you need to do in the task?

Are you being asked to compare? to analyze? to reflect? to review the literature?
Familiarize yourself with the grading rubric (if available). Grading rubrics give clues that help you identify ways of structuring your text or determine the content you need to include. If a grading rubric is not available, ask your instructor to clarify their expectations and criteria.

Example of Grading Rubric

Step 3: Check the technical details

The following requirements are usually specified in the assignment instructions. If you cannot find the information, you should ask your instructor for guidance.

Page length and word count: this detail helps you determine the depth you need to go into. For example

Do you need to limit your assignment to 2 pages? You might want to focus on one key point and support it with clear evidence.
Is it a 10+ page paper? Include more sources, develop a more complex argument or provide more perspectives.
Due date: this element is important to manage your time strategically and see how your assignment preparation plan fits with your other courses and deadlines.
Required sources
Is there a minimum number of references you need to include?
What type of sources should you consult?

Many assignments require you to find scholarly/peer-reviewed articles Depending on the topic and purpose, you might also need to check primary sources, curriculum or policy documents, practitioner-oriented sources. There may also be restrictions or limitations on non-academic sources (e.g., general websites or information sources).

The example below shows how a student followed Steps 1 to 3 by writing notes about their assignment instructions:

Assignment Instructions (sample with student notes) (675.79 KB, PDF)

This is a set of instructions for a final paper with notes written by an OISE student. The notes show you the process of understanding and planning the assignment on the student’s part.

Make a Plan

Once you know the assignment deadline, plan your schedule by starting from the final deadline and working backwards.
Break the assignment down into steps & sub steps: researching, pre-writing, drafting, getting feedback, editing / re-writing, proofreading. Note: these steps are often iterative, and you might need to go back and forth between them.
Assign internal deadlines: how long will it take you to complete each sub-step?

Useful Tools for Planning:

Assignment Planner to help you make a day-by-day plan.

Assignment Plan (template) (20.04 KB, Word)

Download this template and use it when planning your work for an assignment.

Our Tips

1. Ask yourself questions as you approach each step of your assignment:

What do I need to do for a particular task (e.g. outlining the structure, researching, drafting, etc.)?
Do I know how do it?
If yes: what are the steps specific to this task?
If no: how can I find out? -- do some research and ask for help.
Can I break it down into smaller steps?
How long will each step take me?
What should my internal deadline be for this step?

2. Manage your time wisely.

3. When making your plan, consider your other responsibilities and how much time you will actually have to dedicate to this assignment. (Sometimes we need to multitask)

4. Don't leave the assignment preparation to the last minute!

5. Get support from your instructor and/or OSSC advisors if you need. Bring questions related to the assignment proposed as well as to your ideas on how to do the assignment. When you define a topic, ask about the appropriateness and feasibility of said topic.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Organize Literature

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 27 Mar 2024 18:50:28 +0000

How to Organize Literature ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 03/27/2024 - 14:50

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Research skills, Technology

Skills Keywords:

Literature reviews, Reference management software

This Resource Page will help you:

Find strategies to record basic information from sources to organize them and create a reference list
Find a system to organize your notes and key information from the sources you have read to develop the main ideas for your literature review

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 2, part 4, organizing the literature you selected.

Introduction

Once you have gathered the relevant literature for your assignment and read it in detail, you need to organize key information and notes systematically to compare and contrast study results, methods, etc. This organized system will prepare you to analyze the information and develop the main ideas for your assignment. In addition, it will help you determine whether additional literature search is needed or if you need to further refine your topic.

If you need help on how to find sources for your literature review, or how to read critically, please refer to How to Find Sources for Assignments resource page and How to Read Critically.

How can I Organize Basic Information?

For each source you read, first you need to record basic information such as authors’ names, title of the source, and publication year. This information can help you keep track of all the sources collected, but also prepare the reference list that will be featured at the end of your assignment.

In many cases, you need to record and organize the following basic information:

Authors’ name(s)
Publication year
Title of the source
Name of the “place” where the source is located (e.g., journal, book, website)
Volume and Issue number if applicable
Publisher

Method 1: Use a Spreadsheet

Organizing Bibliographic Information of Sources (template) (16.46 KB, application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet)

Download this template spreadsheet and use it to record and organize the bibliographic information of the sources you found. It will help you keep track of the sources collected. At the top, you’ll find an example of how to use this spreadsheet.

Method 2: Use a Reference Management Software

RefWorks, Zotero, Endnote, and Mendeley are appropriate tools for automated reference organization. You can refer to UofT’s citation management software page for more information and links to the above tools.

Below are examples of how to organize basic information using RefWorks and Zotero:

Find a System to Organize your Notes and Key Information

Apart from the basic information of the literature you have read, you also need to record the key content and your notes of each source, which cannot be automatically captured by reference management tools. The aim of this stage is to form a literature review system (e.g., in a table format) that helps you ensure that the important information and ideas from all the sources are effectively recorded and can be visualized all together.

Here are some important components from the literature and your notes that you might want to record:

Focus and aim of study
Research questions / hypotheses
Field (e.g., psychology, language education)
Theoretical framework
Type of publication / study (e.g., empirical or theoretical study)
Methodology (e.g., type of methodology, quality of research design)

Participants
Type of setting (e.g., geographical context, professional and social context)
Findings & Discussion
Date of study / publication
How the study is related to your assignment topic
Other reflections and comments

Tip: The information to be included in your records should be based on what you believe is relevant to your assignment topic or research question. For instance, if your topic focuses on a specific population, it is important for you to record the details about the study participants of the sources you have read.

Here is an example of how you can create a literature review system on a spreadsheet to organize all the important information and find connections among sources:

Research question: What are the experiences and perspectives of undergraduate students and teaching staff on the assessment practices in online mathematics and statistics courses?

Organizing Notes about Sources (template) (17.25 KB, application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet)

Download this template spreadsheet and use it to record and organize the key information of the sources you found + your notes about the relevant points from each source after reading them. It will help you when you analyze your sources and need to develop ideas for your assignment. At the top, you’ll find an example of how to use this spreadsheet.

Why Organize Key Information and Notes Systematically?

A systematic organization of key information and notes will equip you to perform a sound analysis of your sources. For instance, by looking at the columns in your table, you can identify patterns, similarities, differences, and gaps among the results of the studies you’ve read. Here are sample observations that might emerge from looking at your table:

Do all the studies reach similar results?
Why / Why not?
Are there any commons threads that might explain these similar /different findings?
E.g., studies with similar findings used similar methods or participant populations, etc. E.g., studies with different findings were conducted in different settings or different points in time, or they followed different theoretical frameworks, etc.

These observations will eventually become your main ideas and points in your assignment. Therefore, it is important to find a system that allows you to organize and visualize information from sources efficiently and originally.

Our Tips

In many cases, selecting what items to include in your table for organizing literature is not a one-time effort. You may need to add, remove, or re-order them in the process. For example, you can re-order “date of publication” to better understand how the focus of your topic has evolved over time.
If you need more help to get started with your literature review, please refer to our resource page on How to prepare a literature review, where you can find resources or relevant RPs to each step.

Next Steps

After you have organized the basic information and formed an effective literature review system for your source contents and notes, your next steps are analyzing the literature content and developing your main ideas for literature review writing. Please refer to our resource page on literature analysis and development of main ideas for details.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH:

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Prepare a Literature Review

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 24 Oct 2023 22:25:04 +0000

How to Prepare a Literature Review ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 10/24/2023 - 18:25

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Literature reviews, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Navigate the process of preparing a literature review through a step-by-step guide
Find resources to support you in preparing your literature review in each step

Introduction

A literature review is no different from other written assignments (e.g., essays) that you are familiar with. When starting an assignment, the first thing you may think of doing is opening a word document and start writing. However, writing is the final stage of the process: pre-writing preparation is required to lay the foundations for your paper content and structure.

As shown in the roadmap below, this resource page divides literature review preparation into four stages: planning, researching, pre-writing, and writing.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review.

1. Plan

Planning is the first and pivotal stage of preparing a literature review. It helps you stay focused, efficiently allocate your time and resources, and ensure that your work aligns with the designated objectives and requirements of your writing assignments. The planning stage involves two steps: 1) understand your assignment and 2) make a plan. You can find more information about each step in the cards below.

Understand Your Assignment

A thorough understanding of the assignment can help you clarify the purpose of your literature review. By carefully checking the requirements, you gain insights into the expectations of your instructor or research project. This understanding is pivotal because it not only guides the scope and direction of your literature review but ensures that you align your efforts with the specific goals of the assignment, leading to a focused, relevant, and academically satisfying literature review.

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page on understanding assignment instructions and planning.

Make a Plan

Once you’ve established a clear understanding of the expectations and requirements of your literature review assignment, it is crucial to create a feasible work plan. In this plan, you establish strategies, approaches, and estimated time allocation for each step (i.e., conducting a literature search, conducting analysis, and drafting your literature review). This helps you stay focused and work efficiently on your assignment.

You can use an assignment planner to help divide your tasks according to your timeframe. Assignment Planner | Digital Scholarship Unit (utoronto.ca).

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page on understanding assignment instructions and planning.

2. Research

At this stage, you implement your plan and develop the content of your literature review. In many cases, you will begin with research, which typically involves the following steps:

Select and Refine your Topic

When initiating your plan, you often need to choose an appropriate topic for your literature review. Your topic, or a specific research question in some cases, shapes your choice of keywords for literature search and the amount and quality of literature you can find in the subsequent steps. However, you should know that topic selection and refinement is often not a one-time effort. It is an ongoing process where you might repeatedly test whether your topic is appropriate or needs revisions based on the results of your literature search and analysis. For example, your topic may sometimes yield an overwhelming volume of literature. In such cases, adjustments to your topic will be necessary to strike the right balance.

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page on how to select assignment topics.

Search for Sources

After you’ve chosen your literature review topic or research question, the next step is to search for appropriate sources using the library databases and effective search strategies. Learn more about this in our resource page on how to find sources for assignments.

Evaluate and Select Sources

As you search for sources, you need to establish evaluation criteria to select an appropriate amount of high-quality literature that aligns with your topic. The outcomes of this step can also help confirm whether the scope of your topic is appropriate and if any adjustments are necessary.

Learn more about evaluation criteria on our resource page on how to evaluate and select literature.

Organize Literature

Once you have gathered the relevant literature for your assignment and read it in detail, you need to organize key information and notes systematically to compare and contrast study results, methods, etc. This organized system will prepare you to analyze the information and develop the main ideas for your assignment. In addition, it will help you determine whether additional literature search is needed or if you need to further refine your topic. Learn more about organizing your literature on our resource page How to Organize Literature.

3. Pre-Write

When you have gathered and organized literature relevant to your research topic, you are ready to 1) analyze the content, 2) develop your main ideas and 3) produce an outline for your assignment.

Analyze Literature

Once you have organized the content of each source you have selected, you need to analyze it by summarizing relevant findings, evaluating arguments and implications, finding gaps and limitations, comparing and contrasting findings and methods, and finding connections among sources. Learn more in our resource page on how to analyze literature and develop ideas for your literature review.

Develop and Organize Ideas

While and after analyzing all the sources you have read, you will develop the main ideas you intend to write about. Analysis and idea development go hand in hand and don’t follow a perfectly linear process - go back and forth between the literature and the analysis you organized in the previous steps to confirm what supports your ideas, adjust and refine them. Learn more in our resource page on how to analyze literature and develop ideas for your literature review.

Create an Outline

Once you have confirmed the main ideas you intend to include in your literature review, create an outline where you list ideas, sub-points, and supporting evidence. This outline will be the skeleton for the structure of your paper. Learn more about outlines in our resource page on how to analyze literature and develop ideas for your literature review.

4. Write

Once you have established a solid outline, you are now ready for writing. This is the stage when you officially begin to write paragraphs for your literature review. It includes two steps: 1) Write a Draft and 2) Revise.

Write a Draft

At this stage, you produce your initial draft based on the outline you crafted in the previous stage. As introduced in "What is a Literature Review", a good literature review goes beyond a simple summary of findings in the existing literature; it involves your interpretation and critical evaluation of these findings. For this reason, you should include both descriptive and critical points instead of merely compiling descriptions of previous studies.

For specific strategies and information, check the following resource pages:

Revise

Good writing is never a one-time effort but involves multiple rounds of reviews and revisions. Therefore, it is often necessary to revisit your initial draft a couple of times and improve your writing. For example, you may want to review your instructor’s rubric to confirm whether you have fulfilled all the requirements (e.g., content, structure, and citation format) and ask for feedback from your peers, student advisors, and professors.

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page Revising, Editing & Proofreading and Citations and APA Style.

Literature Review Sample

Literature Review (student sample) (366.38 KB, PDF)

This is a full literature review paper written by an OISE student on the topic of Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) and Written Corrective Feedback (WCF) in Writing Centers (WC). Throughout the paper, you will find several annotations. Yellow annotations refer to the structure of the paper, its content and how ideas are developed. Purple annotations refer to writing elements and language elements (e.g., paragraphs, paraphrases, summaries, quotes, stance and voice, cohesion, etc.).

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

On Campus Services

How to Select Assignment Topics

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Mon, 23 Oct 2023 22:17:53 +0000

How to Select Assignment Topics ana.lacerda@ma… Mon, 10/23/2023 - 18:17

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Library navigation, Literature reviews, Proposals, Searching for sources

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the importance of selecting an appropriate assignment topic.
Learn effective strategies for selecting a topic.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review and indicating you are currently in step 2, part 1, selecting the assignment topic.

Introduction

Your course instructors might ask you to write a ‘midterm paper’ or ‘final paper’, and they will often require you to choose your own assignment topic.

For example, in a course about Second Language Teaching Methodologies, your instructor might provide the following guidelines:

“You can write a research-oriented position paper. From an educational researcher perspective, position yourself in relation to and critically discuss one of the fundamental methodologies, areas, concepts or issues presented in this course. Aim to support your position on this topic with scholarly research, examples, and any other resources you deem appropriate.”

Once you’ve understood the assignment instructions, the next thing to do is choose your paper topic.

What are the Features of an Appropriate Assignment Topic?

Selecting and developing your own topic helps you improve your thinking and research skills. As you think about topics, it is important to find a balance between what you want to explore and what your assignment instructions ask for.

A common challenge for students is finding topics that are focused. When your topic is too broad, the feedback you might receive from your instructor is “to narrow it down”.

Narrowing down a topic means defining

a specific focus of inquiry (e.g., a teaching strategy, a framework, a curriculum reform, an educational policy, a counselling approach)
a context (e.g., geographical context, education setting, target population)
a purpose (e.g., what is the impact of an approach, what are the causes of an issue, how was a policy decided, contrast/comparison of methodologies, solutions to a problem)

When you focus your topic (AKA “narrow it down”), you dig deeper into a specific part of it, which makes your research more detailed and doable. Focusing your topic is important to establish clear boundaries to what you will be reading and writing about.

If your topic is too broad: 

You may find too many sources and feel overwhelmed
You may struggle deciding what concepts to include or omit
The information you find will be too general
The result might be a general assignment that fails to respond to the specific assignment instructions.

Let's compare some broad and narrowed-down assignment topics to highlight the difference:

Strategies for Finding Your Topic

MUST DO!

Before you choose your assignment topic, review the assignment instructions.

Pay attention to any specific requirements or constraints outlined in the instructions, including the types and number of sources you are required to use. This can help you identify the boundaries and expectations for your topic. You can learn more about understanding assignment instructions here.

Draw from your Personal and Professional Experience

Our unique background can lead to fresh perspectives on existing topics or inspire entirely new research questions. Think about your personal or professional experience related to the theme of your course with an inquisitive eye. Ask yourself critical questions about these experiences in relation to what you are learning.

Here is some inspiration for you:

If you have teaching experience, think about how concepts you're learning in your course might apply to your teaching context.
Think about a problem / issue you have encountered in your personal /professional life. Can you seek information to better understand it or solve it?
Think about some behaviors / attitudes that you or people you know have. Can you find explanations for them through the concepts you’re learning?
Think about broader social issues or education-related issues in your culture. Can you find any relationships to your course contents?

Engage with the academic community

Talk about your assignment topic ideas with your peers and instructors in class.

Outside of class, unleash your curiosity and be proactive! Attend workshops, seminars, university events, and other academic activities. You might discover new areas of interest or research angles. You can also receive valuable guidance and suggest areas of research that align with our academic goals.

Keep a list

While taking your courses, keep a list of interesting topics and questions.

Inspiration can strike at any moment, so jot down your ideas whenever they come to you.
Where to find inspiration for ideas?

Review course outlines and topics and see what interests you
Take notes of interesting points made by your professors and colleagues in and outside of class
Think about your professional /personal experience and write down issues and questions that might align with course content

Brainstorming and Mind Mapping

Do Preliminary Literature Search

If you have a general idea about your topic and are in the process of refining it, you should do some preliminary research and find relevant literature that will help you narrow down and refine your topic.

If your topic is very broad (e.g., Constructivism and learning), start from general sources like

Specialized encyclopedias
State-of-the-art articles
Literature reviews
Meta-analysis articles

These are goldmines for identifying the main concepts, trends, research gaps and scholars around your topic of interest.

Look for recent literature, if possible, to learn about the most current knowledge and questions in your field of study.

Note that the literature you read and search can be relatively broader than the topic we will eventually choose. For example, our review might reveal that there is a growing body of literature on the “benefits of project-based learning in primary education”. This could inspire us to investigate the effectiveness of project-based learning specifically in science education.

For more information on how to search for appropriate sources check How to Find Sources for Assignments. To learn more about literature reviews, check What is a Literature Review and How to Prepare a Literature Review.

Our Tips

Find a topic that interests you! Graduate courses allow you to explore areas of study that are meaningful to you. Consider assignments as an opportunity to advance your own learning interests.

Start early! Finding the right assignment topic is often an iterative process and can take some time. This means that your first topic idea might not be your final topic as you go back and forth between your topic selection strategies, discussions with your instructor and literature search.

Be proactive! Discuss your ‘half-baked’ ideas and/or outline with your instructor, and ask for specific feedback and constructive advice. Show your instructor that you have done some preliminary work instead of asking them, “can you please help me find a topic?”

Next Steps

Once you finalize your assignment topic, it’s time to search for sources on the library databases using different combinations of keywords. Check our resource page on searching for sources.

Learning strategies

How to Take Notes of Readings

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

Why Should You Take Notes?

Note-taking Strategies

Method 1: Cornell Notes System

Method 2: Outlining

Heading: identify the important topic and organize the key ideas

Sub-heading: break down to subordinate ideas

Point: capture the key information using bullet points

Sub-point: capture more specific ideas related to Point above

Sub-point:

Method 3: Mind Mapping

Method 4: Charting

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Notetaking Strategies

Advantages

Disadvantages

Our Tips

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Take Notes in Class

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Why Should We Use Note-taking Strategies?

How to Take Effective Notes in Class/While Listening?

Focus on listening:

Organization of in-class notes:

How to Make the Most of your Notes after Class

After-class Review

Deep Review

Handwritten vs Digital Notes

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

Critical Thinking in Academic Contexts

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

What is Critical Thinking?

Why is Critical Thinking Important for your Academic Studies?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Reading?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Discussions?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Collaborative Work?

How to apply Critical Thinking in Academic Writing?

Descriptive vs Critical Writing

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Read Academic Articles

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

What are Research Articles?

Empirical Articles

Theoretical Articles

Review Articles

Empirical Articles

How to Read Research Articles?

1. Preview

Skim

Scan

2. Read in a Specific Order

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

4. Active Reading & Questioning

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

Respond to what you read

Save or export references and quotes

Notetaking Examples

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Understand & Plan Assignments