Literature reviews

How to Write a Research Proposal Paper

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Thu, 05 Sep 2024 21:41:03 +0000

How to Write a Research Proposal Paper ana.lacerda@ma… Thu, 09/05/2024 - 17:41

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Literature reviews, Proposals, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Learn what a research proposal paper is. 
Understand the importance of writing a research proposal paper.
Understand the steps in the planning stages of a research proposal paper. 
Identify the components of a research proposal paper.

What is a Research Proposal Paper?

A research proposal paper:  

includes sufficient information about a research study that you propose to conduct for your thesis (e.g., in an MT, MA, or Ph.D. program) or that you imagine conducting (e.g., in an MEd program). It should help your readers understand the scope, validity, and significance of your proposed study.
may be a stand-alone paper or one part of a larger research project, depending on the nature of your assignment.
typically follows the citation format of your field, which at OISE is APA.

Your instructor will provide you with assignment details that can help you determine how much information to include in your research proposal, so you should carefully check your course outline and assignment instructions. 

Why Write a Research Proposal Paper?

Writing a research proposal allows you to

develop skills in designing a comprehensive research study;
learn how to identify a research problem that can contribute to advancing knowledge in your field of interest;
further develop skills in finding foundational and relevant literature related to your topic;
critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem;
see yourself as an active participant in conducting research in your field of study.

Writing a research proposal paper can help clarify questions you may have before designing your research study. It is helpful to get feedback on your research proposal and edit your work to be able to see what you may need to change in your proposal. The more diverse opinions you receive on your proposal, the better prepared you will be to design a comprehensive research study.

How to Plan your Research Proposal

Before starting your research proposal, you should clarify your ideas and make a plan. Ask yourself these questions and take notes:

What do I want to study?
Why is the topic important? Why is it important to me?
How is the topic significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
What problems will it help solve?
How does it build on research already conducted on the topic?
What exactly should I plan to do to conduct a study on the topic?

It may be helpful to write down your answers to these questions and use them to tell a story about your chosen topic to your classmates or instructor. As you tell your story, write down comments or questions from your listeners. This will help you refine your proposal and research questions.

Research Proposal (student's preliminary notes) (91.11 KB, PDF)

This is an example of how to start planning and thinking about your research proposal assignment. You will find a student’s notes and ideas about their research proposal topic - "Perspectives on Textual Production, Student Collaboration, and Social Networking Sites”.

Structure of a Research Proposal Paper

A research proposal paper typically includes:

Introduction

Start your introduction by giving the reader an overview of your study. Include:

the research context (in what educational settings do you plan to conduct this study?)
the research problem, purpose (What do you want to achieve by conducting this study?)
a brief overview of the literature on your topic and the gap your study hopes to fill
research questions and sub-questions
a brief mention of your research method (How do you plan to collect and analyze your data?)
your personal interest in the topic.

Conclude your introduction by giving your reader a roadmap of your proposal.

To learn more about paper introductions, check How to write Introductions.

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework refers to the theories that you will use to interpret both your own data and the literature that has come before. Think about theories as lenses that help you look at your data from different perspectives, beyond just your own personal perspective. Think about the theories that you have come across in your courses or readings that could apply to your research topic. When writing the theoretical framework, include

A description of where the theories come from (original thinkers), their key components, and how they have developed over time.
How you plan to use the theories in your study / how they apply to your topic.

Literature Review

The literature review section should help you identify topics or issues that will help contextualize what the research has/hasn’t found and discussed on the topic so far and convince your reader that your proposed study is important. This is where you can go into more detail on the gap that your study hopes to fill. Ultimately, a good literature review helps your reader learn more about the topic that you have chosen to study and what still needs to be researched

To learn more about literature reviews check What is a Literature Review.

Research Methodology

The methods section should briefly explain how you plan to conduct your study and why you have chosen a particular method. You may also include

your overall study design (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) and the proposed stages
your proposed research instruments (e.g. surveys, interviews)
your proposed participant recruitment channels / document selection criteria
a description of your proposed study participants (age, gender, etc.).
how you plan to analyze the data.

You should cite relevant literature on research methods to support your choices.

Implications and Conclusion

The conclusion section should include a short summary about the implications and significance of your proposed study by explaining how the possible findings may change the ways educators and/or stakeholders address the issues identified in your introduction.

Depending on the assignment instructions, the conclusion can also highlight next steps and a timeline for the research process.

To learn more about paper conclusions, check How to write Conclusions.

References

List all references you used and format them according to APA style. Make sure that everything in your reference list is cited in the paper, and every citation in your paper is in your reference list.

To learn more about writing citations and references, check Citations & APA.

Research Proposal Examples

Quantitative Research Proposal (Instructor's Guidelines) (222.05 KB, PDF)

These are detailed guidelines on how to prepare a quantitative research proposal. Adapted from the course APD2293 “Interpretation of Educational Research”.

Research Proposal (Student Sample) (110.27 KB, PDF)

This is a research proposal paper written by an OISE student on the relationships between textual production, student collaboration and social networking sites. Hover over the highlighted parts to find annotations and comments about the structure and content of this research proposal.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Draft an Academic Paper

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 16 Jul 2024 16:02:34 +0000

How to Draft an Academic Paper ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 07/16/2024 - 12:02

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, English language

Skills Keywords:

Grammar, Literature reviews, Samples of written work, Vocabulary, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Learn the steps in drafting an academic paper or standalone literature review.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or academic paper and indicating you are now in step 4, part 1, writing the draft.

Introduction

Note: the instructions on this page focus on the following types of academic papers: research papers and standalone literature reviews.

Drafting an academic paper involves three main steps:

Understanding the general structure of the text genre (e.g., research paper, literature review, etc.)
Creating an outline
Drafting/writing the paper

We will look at each of these stages in detail.

Step 1: Understand the Structure of Academic Papers

Research Papers

These papers typically focus on the results of original research. This is their structure:

Introduction

Here you give the background information on your topic, include a problem statement, briefly contextualize your topic in the literature, and outline your objective/thesis statement/research questions.

To learn more, check How to Write Introductions.

Literature Review

This is sometimes included in the Introduction for academic journal articles. Here you review the relevant literature on the topic before eventually identifying a gap that your study aims to fill.

To learn more, check What is a Literature Review? and How to Prepare a Literature Review.

Methods

Here you give details on your research design, participants, data collection procedures, data analysis techniques, etc. (i.e. how you conducted your research).

Findings/Results

This is where you share the findings of your research, often organized into themes. In more quantitative papers, you will find tables and charts in this section, while qualitative studies will have a lot of participants’ quotes in this section.

Discussion

In this section, you generally zoom out to discuss the meaning of the findings altogether, their connections to the previous literature, and the ultimate answers to your research questions. This section will take on a more narrative style than the numbers and charts found in the quantitative Results section and more analysis of participants' perspectives in qualitative texts.

Conclusion

Finally, you summarize the key points and then discuss larger implications in the Conclusion. This is where writers often include the study’s limitations, areas for future research, and recommendations for practice.

To learn more, check How to Write Conclusions.

Standalone Literature Reviews

These papers are based on secondary sources. The entire paper is a literature review and the data is the literature itself. This is their structure:

Introduction

Much like in Academic Papers, give the reader an overview of the topic and the rationale or objective of the Literature Review, ending with the research questions. If you need to give more background information than there is room for in the Intro, you can create separate background sections to follow the Intro.

To learn more, check How to Write Introductions.

Methods

Because the entire paper is a Literature Review, we don’t need a separate Literature Review section here. Thus, jump straight to the Methods, including information on the retrieval of relevant studies (databases, key words), inclusion and exclusion criteria (limits on date of publication, topic, text type, etc.), and then briefly introduce the studies that you did include and the categories that you will use to organize them in your Literature Review.

Findings/Results

This section looks like the Literature Review section of the Academic Paper, except here the literature IS your data. You can, again, organize this section by theme and outline the focus, methods, and results of each study before comparing, contrasting, integrating, and critiquing them.

Discussion

Zoom out and look at your ‘findings’ all together. How have they answered your research questions? What are the similarities that you found in the literature? Any unresolved debates? Any remaining gaps and areas for future research? You will continue to do comparison, contrast, synthesis and critique here, but now across all your themes instead of one-by-one.

Conclusion

Quickly highlight the key takeaways from your Literature Review before focusing on larger implications, recommendations, predictions, etc. You can also discuss the limitations of your own Literature Review here (as opposed to the limitations of the literature in general, which fits into the Discussion above).

To learn more, check How to Write Conclusions.

To learn more about Literature Reviews, check What is a Literature Review? and How to Prepare a Literature Review.

Other Types of Academic Papers

Here are some Resource Pages of other text types that you will probably find in your courses at OISE, so take a look for their specific organizational patterns:

Step 2: Create an Outline

Always start with an outline before drafting your paper – it will make your drafting and revising phases much easier.

Beyond just creating an outline for the main sections of your paper (described in the section above), try to develop a more detailed outline that shows different sub-headings, points, and supporting arguments within each section.

Consult your outline continually during the writing process and check it again at the completion of a rough draft to make sure you included all relevant and important points. At the same time, keep in mind that your outline will evolve during the writing process as you read more, come up with new ideas, and drop old ones, so some flexibility with your outline is also advised.

Here is an example of a detailed outline of a research paper.

Step 3: Draft / Write

In the drafting/writing process, the order that you write in depends on you.

Some people like to start at the beginning (Intro) and then write in the same order as the outline until the Conclusion. Others prefer starting with the main findings and then writing out from there, jumping around to write different sections and sometimes even ending with the Introduction once all the details are filled in. Try experimenting with different approaches to see which writing sequence works best for you.

The following Resource Pages give some guidance on the writing process, starting with the most basic level of the paragraph:

Next, these Resource Pages can help you draft different sections of your paper, from Introductions to Literature Reviews to Conclusions.

When zooming in on specific sections or paragraphs of your paper, these Resource Pages describe more mechanical aspects such as communicating directly to your readers, using transitions, attending to flow, and bringing out your own voice in the writing:

Beyond your own voice, these last Resource Pages give instruction on how to integrate other articles and texts into your writing as well as how to use APA style:

Example of a Standalone Literature Review

Literature Review (student sample) (366.38 KB, PDF)

This is a full literature review paper written by an OISE student on the topic of Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) and Written Corrective Feedback (WCF) in Writing Centers (WC). Throughout the paper, you will find several annotations. Yellow annotations refer to the structure of the paper, its content and how ideas are developed. Purple annotations refer to writing elements and language elements (e.g., paragraphs, paraphrases, summaries, quotes, stance and voice, cohesion, etc.).

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

On Campus Services

How to Read Academic Articles

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 29 May 2024 15:39:33 +0000

How to Read Academic Articles ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 05/29/2024 - 11:39

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Reading skills, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Critical thinking, Literature reviews, Note-taking, Reading critically

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of reading academic articles
Familiarize with the general structure of research articles
Read articles effectively for different course assignments

Introduction

Critical reading is an essential skill for academic success, enabling you to engage deeply with course materials and scholarly articles.

This resource page offers different strategies for critical academic reading depending on your reading purposes — whether for class discussions, selecting literature for an assignment, or delving into selected readings for your paper writing— to maximize your understanding and insight.

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

You are required to engage in academic reading for various purposes:

Classwork / Homework

Purpose: get the gist (i.e., main points) of assigned readings to prepare yourself for class (e.g., class discussions) or homework (e.g., online posts and discussions).

Select sources for an assignment

Purpose: decide if a source is a match for your assignment topic and goal by quickly reading it.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Purpose: Once you have found appropriate sources, you need to read them more in detail to find and use the points that are relevant to your topic, and include them in your assignment.

What are Research Articles?

Research articles are a very common genre you are required to read in your courses. There are three main types of articles you may engage with:

Empirical Articles

These articles report original research studies, usually with primary data and results from experiments.

Example: Trenholm, S., Alcock, L., & Robinson, C. (2015). An investigation of assessment and feedback practices in fully asynchronous online undergraduate mathematics courses. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 46(8), 1197–1221. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2015.1036946

Theoretical Articles

These articles usually contain and describe new theories, principles, and concepts related to a specific field of knowledge. They normally do not present empirical or experimental data.

Example: Yazan, B. (2018). A conceptual framework to understand language teacher identities. Journal of Second Language Teacher Education, 1(1), 21–48.

Review Articles

These articles summarize and analyze published work on a certain topic to 1) synthesize the previous research, 2) provide a critical overview of the previous research, 3) evaluate the state of research, and 4) suggest gaps in knowledge and future research directions.

Example: Lapkin, S., Mady, C., & Arnott, S. (2009). Research perspectives on core French: A literature review. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12 (2). Retrieved from https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/CJAL/article/view/19936

Empirical Articles

Empirical articles are perhaps the most common type of research articles you will read during your studies. They are also often called by different names, such as experimental reports and research reports. There are two important features of these articles that you should keep in mind when you read:

Predictable Structure. Empirical articles typically follow a structure called IMRD (Introduction – Methods – Results – Discussion)
Predictable Language. Empirical articles often employ standard vocabulary or phrases for certain purposes (e.g., to introduce the research objective and research questions).

Familiarizing with the structure and language of empirical articles will help you find the main points quickly and ultimately read more efficiently.

Below is the IMRD structure of a typical empirical article with the main sections:

Abstract

The summary of key information from the entire article.

Introduction

An introduction of an empirical article normally includes the following information:

Background information of the general topic
Relevance of topic
Rationale and purpose of the study
Literature review (which can often stand as a separate section)
Review of previous research on the topic
Gaps and unanswered questions
How the study addresses gaps or questions
Significance of the study
Research questions
Definition of key terms (which may sometimes be included in other sections or sub-sections, such as the literature review or conceptual framework)

Methods

This section describes the research methods employed. It often includes the following components:

Research design
Participants
Instruments used to collect data
Procedure for data collection and analysis

Results

This section reports the findings based on data analysis. The content in this section is often divided into various sub-sections.

Discussion & Conclusion

Authors summarize and interpret the research findings in this section. In some cases, you may see the Discussion and Conclusion separated into two sections. Normally, this section includes the following information:

Summary and interpretation of findings
Answers to the research questions
Limitations
Directions for future studies

References

This section lists all the sources cited in the article.

Example: Check the video below about annotating a journal article from minute 4.05

From: Excelsior OWL - https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-while-reading/annotating/annotating-a-journal-article/

How to Read Research Articles?

Here is a step-by-step process to read research articles effectively:

Preview
Read in a Specific Order
Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary
Active Reading & Questioning
Take Notes

1. Preview

Skim the Abstract, Intro, and Conclusion: Quickly read through the Abstract, Introduction, and Conclusion to grasp the main arguments and findings. This skimming practice allows you to identify the purpose of the text, the author's hypothesis, and the conclusions drawn, providing a framework for deeper understanding when you read in full.
Scan the whole text structure (titles, headings, sub-headings). Scanning helps you understand the main themes and organization of the document, allowing you to anticipate the kind of information that will be covered, and quickly find specific information (e.g., study aim, main results, etc.).
Note aids (e.g., tables, graphs, charts, bolded terms): These elements are designed to highlight key information and can serve as clues to important concepts and data within the text.

Skim

Purpose: to quickly get a general overview or main idea of a text without reading every word or detail.
Technique: When skimming, you glance over the text, focusing on headings, subheadings, specific sections, topic sentences, and keywords.
Use: Skimming is useful when previewing a text to determine its relevance or when trying to understand the main points of a lengthy passage quickly.

Scan

Purpose: to quickly locate specific information or details within a text.
Technique: When scanning, you move your eyes rapidly over the text, looking for particular words, phrases, or information that matches your specific search criteria. You do not read every word but instead focus on finding the target information.
Use: Scanning is helpful when searching for specific facts, names, dates, or keywords within a text, such as when looking up information in an index, table of contents, or search engine results.

2. Read in a Specific Order

While engaging in academic reading, we almost never read research articles from the beginning to the end like a book. Depending on your purposes, you should read the article sections in a specific order.

Classwork/Homework

If your reading goal is to get the gist (i.e., main points) of the article, this is the suggested reading order and the specific content you can expect to find in each section.

Note: your task type and instructions ultimately determine the reading order and focus. For example:

In a Research Methods class, tasks might require you to focus on the Methods and Results sections more than you would in other classes.
If the task is about leading a discussion on an article, you might need to focus on more sections and details than you would for an online post.

Select sources for an assignment

Abstract
(Conclusion)
(Discussion)

Note: if you have a clear idea of your assignment topic, reading the abstract might sometimes be enough at this stage.

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Abstract
Introduction
Conclusion
Discussion
Results
Methods

Note: you might need to read some sections multiple times to find the points you need.

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

Being familiar with phrases and vocabulary commonly used in academic articles will help you quickly find the information you’re looking for (e.g., study aim, research questions, and findings).

Check below some commonly used vocabulary and phrases, along with examples, for different purposes:

Research Aim & Objectives

The aim of this work/study is to...
Our research/study aims at...
The main objective/purpose is to...
In this paper, we will investigate...

Problem Statement

This seems to be a problem in...
One issue with...is that...
An emerging challenge in this area is that...

Gaps in the Literature

There is limited research discussing...
Little is known about...
As far as we know, few studies have investigated...

Findings

We found that...
Our research indicated that...
Based on the analysis, it is clear that...

Interpretation/Discussion of Findings

The findings suggest that...
A reasonable explanation of this result is that...
It may imply that...

Limitations

Because of the lack of..., we did not/could not...
One limitation of this study is that...

For more vocabulary and phrases used in academic articles, please check our Resource Page on Signposting and the information on Academic Phrasebank and Useful phrases and sentences for academic papers.

4. Active Reading & Questioning

By asking questions, you create a more interactive reading experience that promotes critical thinking, encourages curiosity, and helps clarify areas of uncertainty or ambiguity.

Use your instructor’s prompts to guide your reading: Incorporate your instructor's prompts or questions to guide your reading process.
Ask questions: As you read, generate your own questions to explore the text's implications, context, and arguments.

Below are some guiding questions you can ask for different purposes:

Classwork/homework

Note: If there are specific questions/instructions, read them first and keep them in mind as you read the article!

How is this article relevant to course content?
What is the main argument?
What are some interesting points /ideas/quotes?
Do I agree with the main argument(s)?
What are the findings and their implications?
What points /issues / questions can I use for my task (e.g., class/online discussion)?

Select sources for an assignment

What is the author’s argument and what evidence is presented to support it?
What is the authors’ research question?
Is this article a good match for my topic, research question and arguments?
How might this article be used in my assignment?

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Does point X support my argument or is it in opposition to it?
Do I agree with the author’s findings and conclusion?
How will I use point X in my assignment? How can I connect it to the point I’m trying to make?
Where is the right place in my assignment to include point X from this article?

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

After reading a section, take a moment to paraphrase or summarize the key points in your own words. This practice not only reinforces your memory and comprehension of the material but also helps clarify the main ideas and how they connect to each other. This is especially helpful when you are reading for classroom discussions, in which you are often expected to have a comprehensive and deep understanding of the assigned reading.

Respond to what you read

Questions: Develop a habit of jotting down questions that arise as you read. This can include questions about the author's reasoning, the evidence provided, or their implications.

Comments or observations: Take notes on your thoughts, reactions, and observations while reading. This can be a reflection on how the text aligns or conflicts with your previous knowledge/experience, or critical comments about the strength of the arguments presented. This kind of response fosters a more active and personal connection to the reading material.

Save or export references and quotes

Use tools to digitally highlight, save, or export important quotes and references directly from the text. Keeping a collection of these key points can be invaluable for quick review, writing assignments, or future research, ensuring you have direct evidence and citations at your fingertips. You may also consider using citation management tools to help you manage the references. Refer to our Resource Page on How to Organize Literature and Citation management guide (University of Toronto) for details.

Notetaking Examples

Below are examples of how you can take notes about the same reading for different purposes:

Sample reading: Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06

Assigned reading for class or homework (e.g., presentation, discussion)

Purpose of reading: online discussion

Questions to discuss: What is your experience with assessment practices as a teacher or student in online or distance courses? How is your experience similar to or different from the findings?

What course topic is this reading connected with: assessment for online courses in higher education

Main argument(s) or main findings:

The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations.
The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students.
For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.

Points to raise in class: Experience with online biology courses

Similarity: the lack of interactive sessions made the general experience, including assessments, less engaging and connected with real life

Difference: the feedback on assessment is often quite prompt; knowing about what was not well understood immediately based on the results of each question (automatic grading system). However, there is often no rationale explained in detail, leading to unresolved confusion even after getting feedback.

Select sources for an assignment

My research focus: students’ perspectives and experiences with assessment practices in mathematics and statistics courses in the post-secondary education context.

Source	Reju, C. O., & Jita, L. C. (2020). A comparative investigation of assessment practices in distance and online learning undergraduate mathematics in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 10(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2020.10.1.06
Research question or objective	What are the assessment practices and how are they related to the students learning of undergraduate mathematics in distance and online education?
Arguments & findings	1. The student participants expressed that they are not receiving prompt feedback on their assessments, leading to unmet expectations. 2. The findings indicate that assessment practices, which both differ and align, have influenced open and distance learning approaches at these universities. This highlights the importance of thoroughly evaluating assessment strategies to enhance student engagement and learning, thereby enriching the learning experiences of undergraduate mathematics students. 3. For high-quality and adaptable assessment methods in higher education institutions, it is crucial to offer reliable internet connectivity and consistent, precise feedback to students. Additionally, it is important to develop robust practical and online interactive sessions that engage and draw in students studying mathematics in this format. Public institutions often rely on government financial support. Consequently, the challenge of scarce resources for student assessment could be addressed through collaboration between these institutions and the government to secure the necessary resources.
Relevance to my research focus	Highly relevant, save for paper
Potential use in paper	Can be used to suggest 1) the challenging experiences students had with assessment practices in online math courses; 2) recommendations to improve assessment experiences in online math courses

Include ideas from selected sources into your assignment

Note: The following should be built upon the notes for determining a source for a paper

Relevant quotes:

Negative student experience, inadequate prompt feedback

“The DLI participants indicated that the prompt feedback on their assessment is lacking, resulting in their expectations not being met. One of them commented that “There is no feedback from the tutors when we do assignment online, it is so frustrating.” (p. 101)

Implication for online math education, provide interactive components for student engagement

“To ensure quality and flexible assessment practices in ODL institutions in Nigeria, it is therefore vital to provide viable Internet connectivity, alongside regular and exact feedback to the learners. There is also a need for creation of strong practical and online interactive sessions that will interest and attract students learning mathematics through this mode.” (p. 101)

My observations:

Highly relevant to focus on students' perspectives on assessment for online math learning;
Lack of instructors' or policymakers' perspectives on the same issue, even though the implications point to teaching and government funding --> Need to find if there is any paper filling this gap
The results contradict Tatira (2022), which indicated a general student satisfactory experience with assessment practices in online mathematics courses

For more information about notetaking, check our Resource Page on How to Take Notes of Readings.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

Academic Phrasebank | The University of Manchester

On Campus Services

How to Analyze Literature and Develop Ideas for my Literature Review

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 03 Apr 2024 02:09:13 +0000

How to Analyze Literature and Develop Ideas for my Literature Review ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 04/02/2024 - 22:09

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Reading skills

Skills Keywords:

Literature reviews, Note-taking, Reading critically, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the reasons for analyzing literature and developing your own ideas for a literature review
Analyze literature you searched for and organized
Find strategies to develop your own ideas for literature review writin

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 3: pre-writing.

Introduction

Once you’ve searched and organized the literature for your assignment, the next step is to analyze each source you have selected and develop your own ideas for your review.

In this resource page, we will provide you with strategies to analyze sources and develop ideas for your literature review writing.

If you need support on searching for and organizing literature, check our resource pages on how to find sources for assignments, how to evaluate and select literature and how to organize literature.

As analyzing literature involves reading your sources critically, you may also want to check our resource page on critical reading for effective reading strategies.

Why Analyze Literature and Develop Your Own Ideas?

Analyzing the content of the sources you have gathered and developing your own ideas for a literature review is a fundamental aspect of academic writing. This process is crucial because it helps you:

Develop critical thinking, analytical, and synthesis skills while you comprehend and evaluate the arguments, methodologies, and evidence of the source.
Ensure the originality of thoughts. A literature review does not purely summarize previous studies; it also presents your understanding of or critical perspective on the topic.
Identify gaps, contradictions, and emerging trends in the field. The findings of your literature analysis identify the patterns and gaps in existing studies and inform directions for future research. If you are doing original research, the results from the analysis can also inform the research questions or hypotheses you can focus on to fill the gaps in the field.

How to Analyze your Sources

In addition to collecting basic information for each source you’ve selected (e.g., publication date, participants, and methodologies), you should further analyze the content and make comparisons and connections with other sources in your collection.

Below are some common strategies and tips for analysis.

Summarize theories and findings that are relevant to your topic.

Some guiding questions when summarizing the theories and findings include:

What are the authors’ central arguments?
What is the research design/methodology?
How did the theories or concepts selected by the author frame their findings? (or which authors/fields of knowledge/theoretical frameworks does the author include?)
What is the evidence presented to support the arguments?

Evaluate arguments and implications.

Critically reflect on the arguments, methodologies, and evidence presented by the authors and judge the quality of the reasoning and implications. Some helpful considerations are:

Does the evidence presented by the authors support their central arguments?
Are the conclusions drawn by the author justified and logical?
Do the authors show any bias? Are there any underlying assumptions or unacknowledged perspectives that might affect the work's conclusions?
Whose voices are present? Whose voices are missing?
What are the contributions of these findings for the field?
What further questions arise for you?

Identify limitations and gaps.

Some questions that can help you with this analysis include:

What limitations or gaps can be identified in the work (e.g., in the research design or implications)? How do these affect the overall argument or findings?
What limitations or gaps do the authors acknowledge? What do they leave out (of the text)?
Do the authors suggest areas for future research? Are these suggestions feasible and relevant?
Are there any important questions left unanswered?

Compare and contrast findings and methods.

After reading multiple sources, you need to compare the information and analysis of each source to identify and evaluate emerging patterns and connections among them.

For a course paper, comparing research methods can help you illustrate future directions for research. For example, in a synthesis paper, instructors may ask you to synthesize the common research methods adopted in current studies and what potential innovations can be made in research design.

If you are working on original research, comparing research methods can help you identify the common methodological practices in existing studies and indicate the innovation of the research design of your own study. For example, if qualitative methods are dominating the area, then a mixed-method design of your study can be an innovation.

Here are some questions that can guide you:

How do the findings of this source support or contradict those from other sources?
What common themes or patterns can you identify when considering findings from across all sources?
What are the common research methods adopted in the studies?
Do research method choices lead to different findings? If so, how and why?

How to Organize your Analysis

Spreadsheet

Check this spreadsheet for an example of how you can summarize findings and record your analysis for each source in a spreadsheet. The research topic in this example is assessment practices of online mathematics and statistics courses at the undergraduate level, with a focus on students’ and instructors’ perspectives. You can first browse the overall information of the example sources and pay attention to the final two columns for findings and critical analysis.

Annotated Bibliography

Before drafting the literature review, you can also start with an annotated bibliography to summarize the findings and record your analysis of each source. To get more information about the annotated bibliography, please refer to What is an annotated bibliography and How to write an annotated bibliography resource pages.

How to Develop Ideas

While and after analyzing all the sources you have read, you will start developing ideas for your writing.

Analysis and idea development go hand in hand and don’t follow a perfectly linear process. In some cases, you might have ideas that you seek to confirm (or disprove) through your sources; in other cases, you might develop ideas as you read the literature or after organizing your analysis; often, you might do a bit of both. In any case, even when you have some ideas before your analysis, categorizing relevant information from your sources will help you further develop these ideas into detailed points and sub-points, eventually resulting in your paper structure.

Our tip: go back and forth between the literature and the analysis you organized in the previous steps to confirm, adjust and refine your ideas.

How to Categorize the Information

There are several criteria you can follow to categorize the information analyzed from your sources and develop your ideas.

Remember: The categorization criteria you choose will depend on your research questions and purpose. The chosen criteria should help you see the patterns, potential gaps, and connections among sources, as these will form the main ideas for your literature review.

By issues or themes.

In many cases, you can identify the key issues, patterns, or themes emerging from the sources you collected and analyzed. You may want to focus on these issues and themes in your review.

Example from Literature analysis example.xlsx: a point to discuss in your paper might be the positive impact of technology on assessment during the pandemic if this is the perspective you found in most sources.

From the most to least important information from the sources.

Example from Literature analysis example.xlsx: you may want to prioritize the challenges of online assessment for undergraduate-level mathematics learning because this is what most studies discussed. However, the degree of importance of information depends on your own judgment.

Chronologically.

This is a commonly used method if you intend to provide a review of how a concept (e.g., sociocultural theory) has evolved over time.

By perspectives (e.g., authors’ stances and theoretical frameworks).

Example: if your focus is on scholars’ different perspectives on the definition of teacher identity, or theories employed to explain this definition, you may want to categorize your analysis and structure your ideas using this method.

By methodology.

You can discuss how the choice of methods (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) has yielded different findings on the same topic and investigate why such differences occur.

By context.

You can organize your ideas based on the contexts and settings of the studies you’ve read.

Example: categorize your ideas based on geographical regions and/or institutions (e.g., k-12 schools in China; North American post-secondary institutions)

How to Organize your Ideas

After you have developed your ideas, you need to organize them so that they show the connections among your findings and follow a logical flow.

Below are some methods for organizing main ideas.

Organizing your Ideas: Outline (example) (22.86 KB, Word)

This is an example of how to use an outline to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Organizing your Ideas: Matrix (example) (81.5 KB, PDF)

This is an example of how to use a literature review matrix to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Organizing your Ideas: Concept Map (example) (21.38 KB, Word)

This is an example of how to use a concept map to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Organizing your Ideas: Table (example) (21.06 KB, Word)

This is an example of how to use a table to organize your ideas and visualize the connections among them. These will become the points to include in your assignment.

Our Tips

Regardless of the method you choose to organize your ideas, we recommend that you make an outline for your paper. Making an outline is the final step of the pre-writing stage of the literature review preparation as it provides a skeleton for the structure of your paper and the foundation to start the writing process.

List the main ideas in bullet point format. They will become the main sections of your paper
Under each main idea, list the specific points and supporting evidence from the analyzed sources. These will become your section paragraphs.

By making an outline, you can also check if your ideas and points are organized in a logical order and can make adjustments accordingly.

Next Steps

Once you have analyzed the selected literature and developed and organized your ideas, you are now ready to start writing your literature review. For information and strategies, check our resource pages under the "writing process" keyword.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources:

Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students: Chapter 8: Writing the Literature Review

On Campus Services:

How to Understand & Plan Assignments

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 02 Apr 2024 22:19:46 +0000

How to Understand & Plan Assignments ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 04/02/2024 - 18:19

Skills Categories:

Learning strategies

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Literature reviews, Proposals, Time management

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of assignments at OISE and how assignments support your learning
Navigate the process of understanding assignment instructions
Learn strategies for making plans for your assignments

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 1, part 1, understanding and planning the assignment.

Purposes of Assignments

You may ask: “Why are assignments so common at OISE instead of exams? Why do most OISE instructors use assignments to grade students?”

Assignments reflect the advanced nature of graduate studies, as shown in the three boxes below.

Active and Deep Learning

Assignments call for a higher level of thinking and deeper understanding of a topic. Assignments require and enable you to

think deeply and critically about the material
question and apply complex concepts, rather than just absorbing information
use what you learn in creative and original ways
find information and sources that support your ideas

Independent Learning

Assignments are projects that you initiate. Since it’s your project, you can (and should!) see assignments as opportunities to

explore topics and issues that are interesting and relevant to you (e.g., for professional, academic, or personal purposes)
manage your own time and balance your studies and life.

Develop Academic Skills

Assignments are not just assessment tools or products. Each assignment is a process. As you go through the assignment preparation phases, you practice and improve your academic skills, such as:

Research skills
Critical Thinking
Reading Skills
Academic communication skills (e.g., writing and presenting orally)

Understand Assignment Instructions

Step 1: Read the instructions

Read the assignment instructions thoroughly as soon as you receive them. Take notes of important information and possible questions.

Step 2: Determine the assignment type & purpose

Type

Do you need to produce an annotated bibliography, a reflection, a literature review, a presentation, etc.?
Do you know the structure of that specific assignment type?
If you are unclear (e.g., you don’t know what sections a literature review should include), start by familiarizing yourself with the features of the assignment type in question.

Purpose

What do you need to do in the task?

Are you being asked to compare? to analyze? to reflect? to review the literature?
Familiarize yourself with the grading rubric (if available). Grading rubrics give clues that help you identify ways of structuring your text or determine the content you need to include. If a grading rubric is not available, ask your instructor to clarify their expectations and criteria.

Example of Grading Rubric

Step 3: Check the technical details

The following requirements are usually specified in the assignment instructions. If you cannot find the information, you should ask your instructor for guidance.

Page length and word count: this detail helps you determine the depth you need to go into. For example

Do you need to limit your assignment to 2 pages? You might want to focus on one key point and support it with clear evidence.
Is it a 10+ page paper? Include more sources, develop a more complex argument or provide more perspectives.
Due date: this element is important to manage your time strategically and see how your assignment preparation plan fits with your other courses and deadlines.
Required sources
Is there a minimum number of references you need to include?
What type of sources should you consult?

Many assignments require you to find scholarly/peer-reviewed articles Depending on the topic and purpose, you might also need to check primary sources, curriculum or policy documents, practitioner-oriented sources. There may also be restrictions or limitations on non-academic sources (e.g., general websites or information sources).

The example below shows how a student followed Steps 1 to 3 by writing notes about their assignment instructions:

Assignment Instructions (sample with student notes) (675.79 KB, PDF)

This is a set of instructions for a final paper with notes written by an OISE student. The notes show you the process of understanding and planning the assignment on the student’s part.

Make a Plan

Once you know the assignment deadline, plan your schedule by starting from the final deadline and working backwards.
Break the assignment down into steps & sub steps: researching, pre-writing, drafting, getting feedback, editing / re-writing, proofreading. Note: these steps are often iterative, and you might need to go back and forth between them.
Assign internal deadlines: how long will it take you to complete each sub-step?

Useful Tools for Planning:

Assignment Planner to help you make a day-by-day plan.

Assignment Plan (template) (20.04 KB, Word)

Download this template and use it when planning your work for an assignment.

Our Tips

1. Ask yourself questions as you approach each step of your assignment:

What do I need to do for a particular task (e.g. outlining the structure, researching, drafting, etc.)?
Do I know how do it?
If yes: what are the steps specific to this task?
If no: how can I find out? -- do some research and ask for help.
Can I break it down into smaller steps?
How long will each step take me?
What should my internal deadline be for this step?

2. Manage your time wisely.

3. When making your plan, consider your other responsibilities and how much time you will actually have to dedicate to this assignment. (Sometimes we need to multitask)

4. Don't leave the assignment preparation to the last minute!

5. Get support from your instructor and/or OSSC advisors if you need. Bring questions related to the assignment proposed as well as to your ideas on how to do the assignment. When you define a topic, ask about the appropriateness and feasibility of said topic.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Organize Literature

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 27 Mar 2024 18:50:28 +0000

How to Organize Literature ana.lacerda@ma… Wed, 03/27/2024 - 14:50

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Research skills, Technology

Skills Keywords:

Literature reviews, Reference management software

This Resource Page will help you:

Find strategies to record basic information from sources to organize them and create a reference list
Find a system to organize your notes and key information from the sources you have read to develop the main ideas for your literature review

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 2, part 4, organizing the literature you selected.

Introduction

Once you have gathered the relevant literature for your assignment and read it in detail, you need to organize key information and notes systematically to compare and contrast study results, methods, etc. This organized system will prepare you to analyze the information and develop the main ideas for your assignment. In addition, it will help you determine whether additional literature search is needed or if you need to further refine your topic.

If you need help on how to find sources for your literature review, or how to read critically, please refer to How to Find Sources for Assignments resource page and How to Read Critically.

How can I Organize Basic Information?

For each source you read, first you need to record basic information such as authors’ names, title of the source, and publication year. This information can help you keep track of all the sources collected, but also prepare the reference list that will be featured at the end of your assignment.

In many cases, you need to record and organize the following basic information:

Authors’ name(s)
Publication year
Title of the source
Name of the “place” where the source is located (e.g., journal, book, website)
Volume and Issue number if applicable
Publisher

Method 1: Use a Spreadsheet

Organizing Bibliographic Information of Sources (template) (16.46 KB, application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet)

Download this template spreadsheet and use it to record and organize the bibliographic information of the sources you found. It will help you keep track of the sources collected. At the top, you’ll find an example of how to use this spreadsheet.

Method 2: Use a Reference Management Software

RefWorks, Zotero, Endnote, and Mendeley are appropriate tools for automated reference organization. You can refer to UofT’s citation management software page for more information and links to the above tools.

Below are examples of how to organize basic information using RefWorks and Zotero:

Find a System to Organize your Notes and Key Information

Apart from the basic information of the literature you have read, you also need to record the key content and your notes of each source, which cannot be automatically captured by reference management tools. The aim of this stage is to form a literature review system (e.g., in a table format) that helps you ensure that the important information and ideas from all the sources are effectively recorded and can be visualized all together.

Here are some important components from the literature and your notes that you might want to record:

Focus and aim of study
Research questions / hypotheses
Field (e.g., psychology, language education)
Theoretical framework
Type of publication / study (e.g., empirical or theoretical study)
Methodology (e.g., type of methodology, quality of research design)

Participants
Type of setting (e.g., geographical context, professional and social context)
Findings & Discussion
Date of study / publication
How the study is related to your assignment topic
Other reflections and comments

Tip: The information to be included in your records should be based on what you believe is relevant to your assignment topic or research question. For instance, if your topic focuses on a specific population, it is important for you to record the details about the study participants of the sources you have read.

Here is an example of how you can create a literature review system on a spreadsheet to organize all the important information and find connections among sources:

Research question: What are the experiences and perspectives of undergraduate students and teaching staff on the assessment practices in online mathematics and statistics courses?

Organizing Notes about Sources (template) (17.25 KB, application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet)

Download this template spreadsheet and use it to record and organize the key information of the sources you found + your notes about the relevant points from each source after reading them. It will help you when you analyze your sources and need to develop ideas for your assignment. At the top, you’ll find an example of how to use this spreadsheet.

Why Organize Key Information and Notes Systematically?

A systematic organization of key information and notes will equip you to perform a sound analysis of your sources. For instance, by looking at the columns in your table, you can identify patterns, similarities, differences, and gaps among the results of the studies you’ve read. Here are sample observations that might emerge from looking at your table:

Do all the studies reach similar results?
Why / Why not?
Are there any commons threads that might explain these similar /different findings?
E.g., studies with similar findings used similar methods or participant populations, etc. E.g., studies with different findings were conducted in different settings or different points in time, or they followed different theoretical frameworks, etc.

These observations will eventually become your main ideas and points in your assignment. Therefore, it is important to find a system that allows you to organize and visualize information from sources efficiently and originally.

Our Tips

In many cases, selecting what items to include in your table for organizing literature is not a one-time effort. You may need to add, remove, or re-order them in the process. For example, you can re-order “date of publication” to better understand how the focus of your topic has evolved over time.
If you need more help to get started with your literature review, please refer to our resource page on How to prepare a literature review, where you can find resources or relevant RPs to each step.

Next Steps

After you have organized the basic information and formed an effective literature review system for your source contents and notes, your next steps are analyzing the literature content and developing your main ideas for literature review writing. Please refer to our resource page on literature analysis and development of main ideas for details.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH:

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Evaluate and Select Literature

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 06 Feb 2024 19:12:11 +0000

How to Evaluate and Select Literature ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 02/06/2024 - 14:12

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Reading skills, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Literature reviews, Reading critically, Searching for sources

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand the purpose of having inclusion and exclusion criteria for evaluating literature
Learn the main steps to form inclusion and exclusion criteria for source evaluation
Develop your own inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting literature

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review or an academic paper and indicating you are currently in step 2, part 3, evaluating and selecting literature.

Introduction

As you begin searching for sources for your assignment, you might notice that there are many available sources – sometimes too many. After doing an initial search, it is important to establish evaluation criteria to select only relevant and high-quality sources.

This page will provide you with practical strategies to develop inclusion and exclusion criteria and help you make informed decisions when selecting the sources for your assignments.

If you haven't yet started looking for sources or your search hasn't been satisfactory, please refer to our resource page on How to Find Sources for Assignments.

What are Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria?

Inclusion and exclusion criteria are parameters used to determine which sources are relevant for inclusion in a literature review or research project.

Inclusion criteria specify the characteristics that must be present in the studies for them to be considered, such as type of participants, interventions, outcomes, or study designs.

Exclusion criteria are the factors that disqualify studies from being included, like date of publication, language, or lack of peer review.

Why Do You Need Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria?

It is very important to have clear inclusion and exclusion criteria for your literature because they:

Ensure the quality of your selected literature
Reduce the number of sources you need to read during your source searching phase

Ensure that the literature is relevant to your research focus and appropriate in scope
Increase consistency in your search methodology

Using the RADAR Model and Other Criteria to Evaluate Literature

The RADAR model (Mandalios, 2013) is a framework used for evaluating sources. It provides a structured approach to help you assess important characteristics of a source, such as relevance to your research and accuracy of information. It's designed to help you make informed decisions on which sources to include or exclude. Below is what each component of the RADAR model stands for:

R: Relevance

A: Authority

D: Date

A: Accuracy

R: Rationale

In the following sub-sections, we will guide you to develop inclusion and exclusion criteria using the RADAR model and other elements to help you address these two crucial questions for source selection: 1) Can I trust this source? And 2) Is the source content relevant to my topic and scope?

Step 1: Can I Trust this Source?

The first step is to evaluate the reliability of your searched source. For this purpose, you can use the “Authority,” “Accuracy” and “Rationale” criteria from the RADAR model.

Authority

Assess the qualifications and expertise of the author or organization responsible for the source.
Evaluate the publishers to ensure the credibility of the source.

Guiding questions:

What type of work is this? (e.g., scholarly article, policy document, blog, news, etc.)
Where is this work published? (e.g., type of publication, credible publisher)
Is this work published in a peer-reviewed journal?
Who are the authors?
How is the author's expertise specifically relevant to the research topic? (Note: In certain fields or theoretical approaches, lived experience matters more than formal qualifications, and can be seen as a form of expertise.)
What other works does the publisher present?

Accuracy

Focus on the reliability and truthfulness of the information in the source.

Guiding questions:

Are the authors’ claims and arguments sufficiently supported by reliable evidence?
Is there any unverified and biased information included in the source?
How was the information gathered and presented?

Rationale

Determine the authors’ purposes and objectives.

Guiding questions:

What is the purpose of this publication? Why was it published?
To inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?

Step 2: Is the Source Content Relevant to my Topic and Scope?

Once you have established that your source is reliable, you can determine the relevance of the source to your research topic and scope. For this purpose, you can use the “Relevance” and “Date” criteria from the RADAR model, along with other criteria listed below, to form your inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Relevance

Determine how well the source addresses your specific research needs.

Guiding questions:

Does the source have information relevant to my research topic?
To what extent does the source fit into the scope of my topic?

Date

Determine how current the source is for your topic.

Pay attention to the year when the source was published and set a timeframe (e.g., the most recent 10-20 years). IMPORTANT: Depending on your research topic, you might need to set different timeframes. For example:

If your topic is on a particularly current or recent issue (e.g., the use of Artificial Intelligence in the classroom; post-Covid issues in education), you may want to include more recent publications.
If your assignment is about a historical perspective on a topic (e.g., how the idea of critical pedagogy has evolved over time), you may want to include older works.

Guiding questions:

When was the source published?
In what way is this relevant for my topic?
Is the source up-to-date, or does it include outdated information?

Tip: Do not discard a source only because it’s from a few decades ago and regardless of your research topic. You may want to keep older sources if they have been very influential in the field. Many influential works in education and psychology aren’t recent, such as the works of renowned scholars Paulo Freire on critical pedagogy (1960s) or those of Jean Piaget on developmental psychology (1920s-1970s).

Language

Check what language the authors used for their work. For example, you may want to exclude sources written in languages for which it is difficult to arrange a reliable translation

Methodology

In some cases, you may want to include studies that employ a specific methodology (e.g., qualitative or quantitative studies only) or research designs (e.g., longitudinal studies).

Location & Setting

You may want to include only studies conducted in certain settings. This can refer to

geographical locations (e.g., North America)
specific contexts (e.g., universities).

Tip: When you find too many sources on your topic, you may need to narrow the scope of your topic (e.g., from schools in Canada to schools in Ontario). In the opposite case, you may need to expand the scope of your topic (e.g., from schools in Ontario to Canada).

Participants Profile

You may set criteria for participant demographics depending on the scope of your topic, such as

Education level (e.g., only participants from post-secondary institutions)
Gender
Age group
Cultural / geographical background
Other specific criteria (profession, family status, financial status, etc.)

Theoretical Framework

You may want to include works adopting a specific theoretical or conceptual framework. For instance, you may only include studies framed by sociocultural theories, a focus on gender, Indigenous perspectives, etc.

Next Step

For the next step after source evaluation, please refer to our resource page on How to Organize Literature.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

What is an Annotated Bibliography?

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Wed, 17 Jan 2024 01:41:14 +0000

What is an Annotated Bibliography?  ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 01/16/2024 - 20:41

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Annotated bibliographies, Citations, Literature reviews

This Resource Page will help you:   

Learn what an annotated bibliography is.
Understand the importance of writing an annotated bibliography and its practical applications.  
Identify the components of an annotated bibliography.

What is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of research sources that includes two components for each selected source:

bibliographic information about the source (which in most cases at OISE will be in APA format)
an annotation, which is a summary, assessment, and/or reflection of how the source you selected is significant to your field, assignment, or research project.

For the purposes of class assignments, your instructor will provide you with details that can help determine how much information to include in your annotations. Learn more about how to understand your assignment check our resource page on understanding assignment instructions and planning.

An annotated bibliography can be a standalone assignment or a foundational tool to help develop a larger research project or assignment. Sources used might include primary sources (e.g., poetry, novels, life writings), secondary sources (e.g., scholarly articles, books, book chapters), or both.

What are the Components of an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography typically includes the following sections:

Introduction

Here you provide an overview of :

your research or assignment topic
your research question(s)
the criteria and key terms used to guide your source collection.

The requirements of what you include in your introduction will also be guided by your assignment instructions.

Bibliographic Information

The sources you collect are presented alphabetically in the reference list citation format of your field (to learn more about APA format, see Citations and APA Style).

Depending on the length and depth of your annotated bibliography, your sources can also be organized within identified subthemes. For instance, if your topic is about the expansion of higher education within Canada, a subtheme that you found may be “admission practices”.

Annotations

Below the bibliographic information of each source is the annotation, i.e., a paragraph or a few paragraphs about the source content. Annotations may include the following information:

A summary of the text (e.g., content, scope, main points, intended audience, research methodology, findings)  
Identified strengths and limitations  
Author(s)’s conclusions 
Your reflections on the relevance or usefulness of the text for your purposes 
Other reflections that may be of relevance to you or as outlined in your assignment instructions

See two examples of bibliographic information and annotations below.

Example 1

Example 2

These examples are also available as a PDF:

Annotated Bibliography (student sample) (54.13 KB, PDF)

These are two examples of annotated bibliographies with slightly different structures.

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography?

To explore your topic of interest: By reading multiple sources you will be able to get a sense of emerging themes, topics, and terms surrounding your topic of interest.

To practice your comprehension & synthesis skills: Writing effective annotations requires you to understand your source, identify the main points, and summarize your source in a way that allows new readers to understand the source broadly.

To practice your analytical & critical thinking skills: Your annotated bibliography assignment might require critical evaluation of each source in relation to how it fits with your research interest or assignment. This will require you to (1) assess the relevance of the source for your topic/question; (2) assess the quality of its arguments, findings, and methods; (3) assess how its argument(s) fit with your own understanding; and (4) express how this source helps deepen your understanding of your topic and/or how you plan on using said source in your paper/research project.

To lay your research foundations: As you know, an annotated bibliography provides specific information about each source you have collected. A complete and well-written annotated bibliography can therefore serve as a foundation for your classes, larger assignments (e.g., final paper) or as you pursue other projects within the area.

Now that you know what an annotated bibliography is, the next step is to learn how to write one.

Help & Additional Resources 

Additional Resources:

Writing an annotated bibliography (unimelb.edu.au)

On Campus Services:  

How to Find Sources for Assignments

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Fri, 17 Nov 2023 20:01:25 +0000

How to Find Sources for Assignments ana.lacerda@ma… Fri, 11/17/2023 - 15:01

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Library navigation, Literature reviews, Searching for sources

This Resource Page will help you:

Understand why you should search for sources through the library system .
Search for appropriate sources that fit your assignment requirements.
Learn strategies to make your search more efficient.

Before You Start

Most of the content on this page has been summarized based on a Quercus self-paced learning module developed by the University of Toronto Libraries titled Library Research Skills.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review and indicating you are currently in step 2, part 2, finding sources for your assignment.

What are Scholarly and Peer-reviewed Sources?

You may receive assignment instructions that require you to find sources labelled as “scholarly”, or “academic”, or “peer-reviewed”. You might wonder what these terms mean:

Scholarly or Academic Sources

Scholarly or academic sources are materials that have been created by experts in a particular field of study. They are characterized by their depth of research, rigorous analysis, and adherence to high academic standards. These resources contribute to scholarly discussions and are often published in journals, books, or conference proceedings. Examples include research articles, academic monographs, and conference papers.

Peer-reviewed Sources

Peer-reviewed sources are scholarly materials that have undergone a thorough evaluation process by experts in the same field before publication. This evaluation ensures the quality, accuracy, and credibility of the content. Peer-reviewed resources are essential for academic research as they provide reliable information that has been validated by peers with expertise in the subject area. For a deeper look at the peer review process check Peer Review from the University of Toronto Libraries .

Source Searching Roadmap

This resource is designed to guide you in efficiently locating the appropriate sources for your assignments. The roadmap below gives you an overview of the steps involved in searching for sources. Each step is then explained in detail in the individual sections of this resource page.

Illustrated roadmap for research with three steps: 1. Select search tools, 2. Choose keywords, 3. Find sources. Unsuccessful searches loop back with advanced strategies; successful ones move to source evaluation. A tip reminds to track searches.

1. Select Suitable Search Tools

You might wonder why Google isn`t a suitable search tool. Here are some reasons:

Although Google can help you start searching for information, you should follow the assignment instructions if they require you to search for scholarly sources.
There is no guarantee that the sources you find on Google are credible, or that they were written by actual experts in your field. Anyone can publish anything outside of scholarly books and articles!
As graduate students, you should be using multiple search tools in conjunction with each other, including databases and U of T’s Library search. You’ll find more information about this below.

Most scholarly sources you will be requested to search are journal articles and scholarly books. You can learn more about other types of sources here: Exploring sources: Library Research Skills (utoronto.ca)

Types of search tools

Library Search: The LibrarySearch is the main search box on the University of Toronto Libraries websites. You will need to log in with your UTORiD to view most sources you find. Watch this U of T Libraries video for basic instructions on how to search the general library online system.

Subject-specific databases: Databases help you search for articles more efficiently. Most databases specialize in a specific subject and have specific features that let you find the best sources for your discipline faster.

What are the Differences Between Search Tools?

Watch the OISE Library’s video below (2mins 45sec) to learn about it.

What is a database?

Databases are storehouses of articles that have been collected together in one place, often because of their common subject focus; for example, an education database such as ERIC will only index (i.e., contain records) from journals in the field of education. You'll find your results are -- hopefully! -- more relevant to your research interests, so there's less need to sift through a scattered, drawn-out results list. You can search databases by keywords, article title, journal title, and/or author, and use various limiters (e.g., date, language, topics).

The database hierarchy is similar to the Netflix hierarchy, with journals = TV series, volume/issue = season, and article = episode.

Taken from What are Articles & Databases? - Research Help Guide - Research Guides at Toronto Metropolitan University Libraries (torontomu.ca)

Which Databases Contain Education and Psychology Scholarly Articles?

The OISE library has created a page with several education and psychology databases. Starting from the OISE Library main page, you can click on Education Databases and use the filters to choose the database that better fits your topic. Watch this short video to learn more about Education Databases.

What about relevant databases for my department/program?

The OISE Library has created library research modules for each OISE department. The modules are designed to support self-directed learning on the fundamentals of library searching as well as specific databases and resources customized to the different research areas in each of OISE's four departments. These modules are hosted in Quercus on a self-enroll basis.

Library Resources for Applied Psychology and Human Development(APHD)
Library Resources for Curriculum, Teaching and Learning (CTL)
Library Resources for Leadership, Higher and Adult Education(LHAE)
Library Resources for Social Justice Education (SJE)
Library Resources for Master of Teaching (Research 1/CTL7006)

2. Select Search Keywords

What are “keywords”?

Keywords are individual words or concise phrases representing the core concepts of a research topic or document. In academia, they help categorize and locate information. Keyword searching is easy but imprecise.

For example, if you want to write an assignment on second language learning for adult learners, relevant keywords could be:

Second Language Acquisition; Adult Learners; Language Learning Strategies; Communicative Approach; Language Proficiency; Cultural Competence; Pedagogical Techniques, etc.

How to select appropriate keywords

Brainstorm synonyms and related terms to enhance your search strategy. Check out the video ‘How do I Brainstorm Synonyms and Related Terms to Enhance my Search Strategy? from the OISE Library.
Use a planning worksheet to brainstorm keywords for core concepts and related terms.

3. Search for Sources

Once you have identified a few appropriate keywords for your topic, start using them in the database of your choice and check your search results.

Use Database Filters: After performing an initial search, use filters available in the database to refine your results. Filtering by peer-reviewed status, publication date, or subject area can help you sift through results more effectively and find sources that are most relevant to your academic needs.

Adjust Search Scope: If your initial search yields too many irrelevant results, consider narrowing your search to specific fields within the database, such as the article title, abstract, or author keywords, rather than a full-text search. Conversely, if you're finding too few results, expanding your search to include full text might uncover hidden gems.

Keep Track of Your Searches: You will likely perform multiple searches with different keywords. Saving and tracking your searches will therefore be useful. You can use this worksheet.

4. Apply Advanced Search Strategies

Research is an iterative process. If your initial searches don't yield the desired results, revisit your search terms and strategies. See below advanced search strategies to help you find the sources you need.

Search phrases in quotations

Phrase searching is a type of search command that can be used to narrow search results. When your keyword is made of two or more words, search the phrase in quotations, e.g., “elementary school” or “post-secondary education” to search for separate words as an exact phrase.

Use Boolean operators

Read this page for a detailed explanation of Boolean operators

Use truncated words

Truncation allows you to expand your results by searching for multiple endings of the same root word using an asterisk*.

Example:  Search canad* to find Canada, Canadian, or Canadians.

Watch this video (external page) to learn more about truncation.

Still not sure what all of these strategies look like in practice? The video tutorial below shows you how to use search strategies to find sources in Education Source, one of the main education databases.

Education Source

5. Next Steps

Once you have found some potentially useful sources, you will need to take a closer look and and evaluate whether they are relevant to your topic, credible and useful for your arguments and ideas. To learn more about critical reading, check our resource page on How to Read Academic Articles. To learn more about evaluating sources, read our resource page How to Evaluate and Select Literature.

As you read, evaluate and go through your selection process, you will also need to save and organize your sources (i.e., the documents, their citations, and the relevant content) to easily and quickly retrieve the information you need. To learn more about organizing your sources, read our resource page on how to organize literature.

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Prepare a Literature Review

ana.lacerda@mail.utoronto.ca — Tue, 24 Oct 2023 22:25:04 +0000

How to Prepare a Literature Review ana.lacerda@ma… Tue, 10/24/2023 - 18:25

Skills Categories:

Academic writing, Learning strategies, Research skills

Skills Keywords:

Literature reviews, Writing process

This Resource Page will help you:

Navigate the process of preparing a literature review through a step-by-step guide
Find resources to support you in preparing your literature review in each step

Introduction

A literature review is no different from other written assignments (e.g., essays) that you are familiar with. When starting an assignment, the first thing you may think of doing is opening a word document and start writing. However, writing is the final stage of the process: pre-writing preparation is required to lay the foundations for your paper content and structure.

As shown in the roadmap below, this resource page divides literature review preparation into four stages: planning, researching, pre-writing, and writing.

Roadmap presenting the fours steps to prepare a literature review.

1. Plan

Planning is the first and pivotal stage of preparing a literature review. It helps you stay focused, efficiently allocate your time and resources, and ensure that your work aligns with the designated objectives and requirements of your writing assignments. The planning stage involves two steps: 1) understand your assignment and 2) make a plan. You can find more information about each step in the cards below.

Understand Your Assignment

A thorough understanding of the assignment can help you clarify the purpose of your literature review. By carefully checking the requirements, you gain insights into the expectations of your instructor or research project. This understanding is pivotal because it not only guides the scope and direction of your literature review but ensures that you align your efforts with the specific goals of the assignment, leading to a focused, relevant, and academically satisfying literature review.

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page on understanding assignment instructions and planning.

Make a Plan

Once you’ve established a clear understanding of the expectations and requirements of your literature review assignment, it is crucial to create a feasible work plan. In this plan, you establish strategies, approaches, and estimated time allocation for each step (i.e., conducting a literature search, conducting analysis, and drafting your literature review). This helps you stay focused and work efficiently on your assignment.

You can use an assignment planner to help divide your tasks according to your timeframe. Assignment Planner | Digital Scholarship Unit (utoronto.ca).

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page on understanding assignment instructions and planning.

2. Research

At this stage, you implement your plan and develop the content of your literature review. In many cases, you will begin with research, which typically involves the following steps:

Select and Refine your Topic

When initiating your plan, you often need to choose an appropriate topic for your literature review. Your topic, or a specific research question in some cases, shapes your choice of keywords for literature search and the amount and quality of literature you can find in the subsequent steps. However, you should know that topic selection and refinement is often not a one-time effort. It is an ongoing process where you might repeatedly test whether your topic is appropriate or needs revisions based on the results of your literature search and analysis. For example, your topic may sometimes yield an overwhelming volume of literature. In such cases, adjustments to your topic will be necessary to strike the right balance.

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page on how to select assignment topics.

Search for Sources

After you’ve chosen your literature review topic or research question, the next step is to search for appropriate sources using the library databases and effective search strategies. Learn more about this in our resource page on how to find sources for assignments.

Evaluate and Select Sources

As you search for sources, you need to establish evaluation criteria to select an appropriate amount of high-quality literature that aligns with your topic. The outcomes of this step can also help confirm whether the scope of your topic is appropriate and if any adjustments are necessary.

Learn more about evaluation criteria on our resource page on how to evaluate and select literature.

Organize Literature

Once you have gathered the relevant literature for your assignment and read it in detail, you need to organize key information and notes systematically to compare and contrast study results, methods, etc. This organized system will prepare you to analyze the information and develop the main ideas for your assignment. In addition, it will help you determine whether additional literature search is needed or if you need to further refine your topic. Learn more about organizing your literature on our resource page How to Organize Literature.

3. Pre-Write

When you have gathered and organized literature relevant to your research topic, you are ready to 1) analyze the content, 2) develop your main ideas and 3) produce an outline for your assignment.

Analyze Literature

Once you have organized the content of each source you have selected, you need to analyze it by summarizing relevant findings, evaluating arguments and implications, finding gaps and limitations, comparing and contrasting findings and methods, and finding connections among sources. Learn more in our resource page on how to analyze literature and develop ideas for your literature review.

Develop and Organize Ideas

While and after analyzing all the sources you have read, you will develop the main ideas you intend to write about. Analysis and idea development go hand in hand and don’t follow a perfectly linear process - go back and forth between the literature and the analysis you organized in the previous steps to confirm what supports your ideas, adjust and refine them. Learn more in our resource page on how to analyze literature and develop ideas for your literature review.

Create an Outline

Once you have confirmed the main ideas you intend to include in your literature review, create an outline where you list ideas, sub-points, and supporting evidence. This outline will be the skeleton for the structure of your paper. Learn more about outlines in our resource page on how to analyze literature and develop ideas for your literature review.

4. Write

Once you have established a solid outline, you are now ready for writing. This is the stage when you officially begin to write paragraphs for your literature review. It includes two steps: 1) Write a Draft and 2) Revise.

Write a Draft

At this stage, you produce your initial draft based on the outline you crafted in the previous stage. As introduced in "What is a Literature Review", a good literature review goes beyond a simple summary of findings in the existing literature; it involves your interpretation and critical evaluation of these findings. For this reason, you should include both descriptive and critical points instead of merely compiling descriptions of previous studies.

For specific strategies and information, check the following resource pages:

Revise

Good writing is never a one-time effort but involves multiple rounds of reviews and revisions. Therefore, it is often necessary to revisit your initial draft a couple of times and improve your writing. For example, you may want to review your instructor’s rubric to confirm whether you have fulfilled all the requirements (e.g., content, structure, and citation format) and ask for feedback from your peers, student advisors, and professors.

For specific strategies and information, check our resource page Revising, Editing & Proofreading and Citations and APA Style.

Literature reviews

How to Write a Research Proposal Paper

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

What is a Research Proposal Paper?

Why Write a Research Proposal Paper?

How to Plan your Research Proposal

Structure of a Research Proposal Paper

Research Proposal Examples

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Draft an Academic Paper

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

Step 1: Understand the Structure of Academic Papers

Research Papers

Standalone Literature Reviews

Other Types of Academic Papers

Step 2: Create an Outline

Step 3: Draft / Write

Example of a Standalone Literature Review

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

On Campus Services

How to Read Academic Articles

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

What are the Purposes of Academic Reading?

What are Research Articles?

Empirical Articles

Theoretical Articles

Review Articles

Empirical Articles

How to Read Research Articles?

1. Preview

Skim

Scan

2. Read in a Specific Order

3. Focus on Predictable Language, Commonly Used Phrases & Vocabulary

4. Active Reading & Questioning

5. Take Notes

Paraphrase or summarize main points or things to remember

Respond to what you read

Save or export references and quotes

Notetaking Examples

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources

On Campus Services

How to Analyze Literature and Develop Ideas for my Literature Review

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Introduction

Why Analyze Literature and Develop Your Own Ideas?

How to Analyze your Sources

How to Organize your Analysis

Spreadsheet

Annotated Bibliography

How to Develop Ideas

How to Categorize the Information

How to Organize your Ideas

Our Tips

Next Steps

Help & Additional Resources

Related Resource Pages on ASH

Additional Resources:

On Campus Services:

How to Understand & Plan Assignments

Table of Contents

This Resource Page will help you:

Purposes of Assignments

Active and Deep Learning

Independent Learning

Develop Academic Skills

Understand Assignment Instructions

Make a Plan

This Resource Page will help you:   

Help & Additional Resources 

Related Topics on ASH:  

On Campus Services:  